Class 




Book -Ci^ 



OBnCIAI- IJONATION- 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE I. 




WASHINGTON NAVELS-THE "KING OF ORANGES." (Reduced.) 



CULTURE 



THE CITRUS IN CALIFORNIA. 



RESEARCH BY B. M. LELONG, 
Assisted by Experienced Horticulturists. 



REVISED BY 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 




SACRAMENTO: 
A. J. JOHNSTON : : : superintendent state printing. 

1902. 



WOV 5 1904 
D.ofD* 

CALIFORNIA STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE 



ELLWOOD COOPER President Santa Barbara 

Commissioner for the Los Angeles District. 

FRANK H. BUCK ..Vice-President Vacaville 

Commissioner for tlie Napa District. 

H. WEINSTOCK Treasurer Sacramento 

Commissioner for the Sacramento District. 

RUSS D. STEPPIENS ...Auditor Sacramento 

Commissioner for the State at Large. 

M. J. DANIELS Riverside 

Commissioner for the State at Large. 

THOMAS A. HENDER Sonera 

Commissioner for the El Dorado District. 

A. C. EISEN Fresno 

Commissioner for the San Joaquin District. 

A. B. CASH.. Santa Clara 

Commissioner for the San Francisco District. 

W. J. HOTCHKISS - Healdsburg 

Commissioner for the Sonoma District. 



J. J. KEEGAN Secretary 

Office : State Capitol, Sacramento. 

ALEXANDER CRAW Quarantine Officer and Entomologist 

r Dfgfe: Clay Street Dock, San Francisco. 
• • • 

GERTRUDE 'BiR'D.*. Clerk 



OFFICES: 
State Capitol, Sacramento. 
Branch Office, Clay Street Dock, San Francisco. 



Office of the State Board of Horticulture, 
Sacramento, Cal., Ma\' 24, 1902. 

To His Excellency Henry T. Gage, Governor of California: 

Sir: To meet the demands made by fruit-growers, the State 
Board of Horticulture has deemed it necessary to publish a 
second edition of the Culture of the Citrus in California. This 
second edition comprises nearly all of the subject-matter con- 
tained in the first, with the addition of new matter of 
importance to fruit-growers. 
Respectfully submitted. 

ELL WOOD COOPER, 

President. 




FRUITING BRANCH OF THE ORANGE (Citrus aurantium): 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

THE CALIFORNIA FRUIT INDUSTRY 9 

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA 13 

Primitive Orchards ----- 17 

Expansion of Orange Culture ------- 20 

California Orange and Lemon Shipments ----- 21 

Especially Favorable and Dangerois Localities . - - 22 

POLLINATION-HYBRIDS --------- 23 

Methods Used in Hybridizing Plants. By W. T. Swingle and 

H. J. Webber - - 26 

What Are Hybrids? By W. T. Swingle and H. J. Webber - - 29 

Purpose and Growth of Primal Types. By Win. C. Fuller - 30 

PERIOD OF FRUITFULNESS --------- 42 

The Age of Citrus Trees. By E. W. Holmes - - - - 43 

THE ORANGE. 

VARIETIES— THE SWEET ORANGE - 49 

Navel Type -' - 52 

Washington Navel — History of 52-58 

St. Michael Type .-. 59 

Blood Type -- ---61 

Standard Varieties with No Distinctive Mark . - - 61 

Tangierine-Mandarin Type - . - 63 

Miscellaneous Japanese Citrus Fruits . . - - - 66 

KuMQUAT Type .--.---69 

THE SOUR ORANGE ---------- 70 

THE BITTER ORANGE ---------- 72 

MYRTLE-LEAF TYPE ---------- 72 

THE SHADDOCK ------- 73 

THE POMELO ------ - 75 

THE OTAHEITE ORANGE - - 82 

THE DECIDUOUS ORANGE 83 

MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES 83 

PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE 84 

BUDDING - - 91 

Working-Over Large Orange Trees 95 

PLANTING . - - - 100 

SOILS - - - - - 105 

IRRIGATION - - - - 106 

CULTIVATION ----- - 109 

Cultivation and Irrigation. By J. W. Mills 110 

Subsoil Plow. By J. H. Reed 114 

PRUNING - -' 116 

THE ORANGE CROP— GATHERING, ETC. 123 

The Standard Orange Box 125 

Standard Car of Oranges -------- 128 

ORANGE DROPPING, DISEASES, ETC. 129 

Yellow and Variegated Leaves 130 



O CONTENTS. 

ORANGE DROPPING, DISEASES, ETC.— Continued— Page. 

The Die-Back Trouble ----..-.. 132 

Mottled Leaf ------------ 133 

Gum Disease ------------ 134 

FERTILIZATION ------- 137 

The Use of Fertilizers. By C. C. Chai)man - - - - 133 

Fertilizing Citrus Trees. By N. W. Blanelianl . - - - 142 

Economy in Fertilization. By Prof. E. W. Hilgard - - - 144 

Advantage of Fertilizing Small Trees. By J. M. Edmison - 149 
Fertilizing; the Soil as Affecting the Orange in Health and 

Disease. By Herbert J. Webber 149 

FROST PROTECTION ----------- 155 

QUESTIONS AFFECTING ORANGE CULTURE - - - - 16I 

THE LEMON. 

DESCRIPTION OF TREE, FRUIT, ETC. ------ 165 

VARIETIES ------------- 166 

The Sweet, or Bergamot, Lemon ------- 170 

PRUNING ------------- 176 

The Baronio Method. By A. C. Baronio 182 

Open-Center Method. By C. W. Leffingwell, Jr. - - - . 191 

Open Horizontal Trimming. By George P. Hall - - - - 197 

Semi-Baronio System ---------- 20O 

TREATMENT OF THE LEMON - - - - - - - - 201 

LEMON SIZES; STANDARD BOX ---.-.. 207 

COST OF HANDLING LEMONS -------- 207 

SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY. By W. Catton Grasby, F.L.S. - 209 

THE CITRON. 

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT --------- 231 

PROPAGATION - - - - - - - 232 

VARIETIES ------- 234 

PREPARATION OF CITRON RIND - 234 

COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE -------- 235 

THE LIME. 

TREE, FRUIT, CULTIVATION, PRUNING, ETC. - - - - 239 

VARIETIES ------------- 240 

PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 

BY-PRODUCTS OF CITRUS FRUITS ------- 243 

ORANGE AND LEMON ROT. 

ITS CAUSE, PREVENTION, ETC. By C. W. Woodworth - - 249 

INSECT PESTS, ETC. 

INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS - - - - - 253 

FORMULAS FOR DESTROYING INSECT PESTS - - - - 263 

BENEFICIAL INSECTS— PREDACEOUS ------ 267 



THE CITRUS. 



ITS CULTUEE IN OALIFOEJ^IA. 



THE CALIFORNIA FRUIT INDUSTRY. 

The most important of all California's varied industries at 
the present day is fruit-growing. It has rapidly come to be a 
great productive industry, and has overshadowed all others in 
its extent and importance. Stock-growing, mining, agricul- 
ture, viticulture, have all been overtaken and passed on the 
road, and to-day the production, handling, and marketing of 
the various fruits of the State give employment to a larger 
number of people and have more capital invested in them than 
any other class of enterprises in California. Horticulture is 
the staple industry of the State, and everything that will affect 
it for either good or bad is watched with great interest. The 
condition of the weather in the Eastern fruit sections, the 
records of the thermometer in our own State, the climatic con- 
ditions affecting the bloom or the setting of the fruit, the 
coming and spread of pests or diseases, are all watched with 
the keenest anxiety, for they mean to the State at large good 
or bad times as the indications are favorable or otherwise. 
Out of this pursuit has grown numerous organizations having 
in view the advancement of the industry on various lines. 
These are both public and private. There are State and County 
boards of horticultural commissioners, whose duties are pro- 
tective; fruit-growers' associations; cooperative associations for 
curing and marketing fruits; fruit exchanges and fruit unions; 
besides district and county horticultural societies. All these 
are the outgrowth of this industry and all are working to 



10 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

advance it to the line of perfection as nearly as possible. One 
of the remarkable facts. in connection with fruit-growing is 
the rapidity with which it has forced itself to the front. For, 
while fruit has been grown in California from the date of the 
first settlement, it is only within the past twenty years that the 
industry has come into any prominence. In that time it has 
become the great specialty of the State, so that California now 
boasts the proud distinction of being the orchard of the United 
States. 

The climate and soil of the State render it especially adapted 
to fruit culture. In common with all our pastoral and agricul- 
tural pursuits, California owes the introduction of horticulture 
to the Mission Fathers, who first of all planted fruit-bearing 
trees on the Pacific shores. These plantings were small and of 
no great importance, except in so far as they proved that fruit 
would do well in California. Their orchards were planted with 
no regard to their commercial value, and the only object in 
planting them was to furnish the Fathers and their servants 
with fresh fruit. The best varieties then obtainable found 
their way here, but no effort was made to improve them. In 
fact, early horticulture in California, as with all other develop- 
ments of agriculture, was very crude, and its products in no 
way comparable with those of the present age; but in the 
planting of their primitive orchards the Fathers laid the foun- 
dation for a gigantic industry and "builded better than they 
knew." 

In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from the missions in 
Lower California, their possessions were turned over to the 
Franciscans, and Junipero Serra was selected as President of 
the Missions. A dispute arose between the Franciscans and 
Dominicans over the division of the property. The latter 
claimed an interest in the mission work. In consequence of 
this a division was made, and in 1769 the Franciscans started 
northward, entering and occupying what is now the State of 
California. The avowed object of their establishment was the 
conversion of the savage races to Christianity; but while devot- 
ing themselves to the harvest of souls the Fathers did not 
neglect the material interests of themselves or their establish- 
ments. The surrounding country was speedily subdued and 
the natives were changed from hunters to herdsmen and the 
flocks of the missions became numerous and of great value. 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 11 

It was not thought possible in those early days that the vast 
plains of California would ever be available for other than 
grazing purposes. To the civilized world this State, together 
with the whole Pacific Coast, was known as the "great 
American desert." It was known that there were fertile spots, 
but these were regardeji, like the oases in the Sahara, as but 
accentuating the aridity of the surrounding waste. 

Jose del Galvez, "visitor-general" and secular head, with 
Father Serra, made arrangements for the establishment of 
settlements. Twenty-one missions were established, all but 
three of which had gardens and orchards. The mission 
orchards were very small, and some consisted of but few trees, 
but those trees played an important part in the horticultural 
advancement of the State, for they showed the possibilities in 
fruit culture, and furnished seeds, stocks, and scions for many 
orchards. 

After the occupation of the southern part of the State by the 
Franciscans, the Russians, actuated by entirely different 
motives, penetrated from the north. The Mission Fathers 
were bent upon the spiritual conquest of the new land; the 
Russian traders, upon its commercial conquest; yet the efforts 
of both, diverse at first, converged in the conquest of the wild 
Pacific tribes to modern civilization, and both brought with 
them civilizing influences. The Russians who obtained a foot- 
hold here early in the nineteenth century planted an orchard of 
mixed deciduous fruits at Fort Ross, as early as 1812. The 
Russian orchards, like those of the Mission Fathers, were not 
planted from a commercial consideration, but to supply their 
respective owners with fruit for home consumption. However, 
like the corresponding industry in the south, it served to prove 
that fruit would grow in California, and thus became the pioneer 
of the present great wealth-producing industry of the State. 

The fruits introduced into the two sections of the State were 
characteristic of the countries from which they were brought. 
The chief fruits brought by the Fathers were oranges, figs, grapes, 
and olives — all fruits of a genial southern clime. They met on 
common ground in California with those of the more rugged 
climate of the north — apples, pears, and cherries, introduced 
by the Russian pioneers. It speaks highly for the diversity of 
products to which this State is adapted that both once having 
obtained a foothold maintained it, and to-day we find the apple 



12 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

of the north growing side by side with the orange of the south, 
while the pear and the lemon thrive together. The varieties 
of fruit grown in the missions of Lower California, whence the 
Franciscans derived their stock, were few in number and con- 
sisted of figs, citrons, oranges, pomegranates, plantains, olives, 
and dates. There were no fruits of the north temperate zone, 
unless it were a few peaches of very indifferent quality, which 
did not thrive well and were not regarded as worth much con- 
sideration. 

As elsewhere related, the Franciscans made their first estab- 
lishment at San Diego in 1769, and proceeded from that point 
northward, establishing altogether twenty-one missions; the 
last one being at Sonoma in 1823. Here they found the Rus- 
sian settlements, and the horticultural products of the north 
and the south met and have grown together since. At each of 
their missions the Fathers established orchards. 

Vancouver, in his memoir of the Pacific Coast, in 1792, 
describes an orchard which he found at Santa Clara in which 
were growing apples, peaches, pears, apricots, and figs, the ' 
trees all being thrifty and promising. He further details 
finding at the mission of San Buenaventura apples, pears, 
plums, figs, oranges, grapes, peaches, and pomegranates. The 
orchards connected with the Mission San Gabriel were among 
the most extensive of that early period, having, among other 
fruits growing, oranges, citrons, limes, apples, pears, peaches, 
pomegranates, and figs; grapes also grew in abundance. 

No statistical accounts are extant recording the number of 
trees or the amount of fruit produced by the missions at the 
period of their greatest prosperity. Inventories of the mission 
properties were made at the time of their secularization in 
1834. That of the Santa Ynez Mission recorded 987 fruit trees, 
valued at $1.00 each. San Fernando returned 1,600 fruit 
trees, valued at 11.50 each; San Gabriel, 2,333 fruit trees, upon 
which no valuation was placed; and San Diego returned 517 
olive trees. Outside of the missions there were a few attempts 
at horticulture, which might be called the "prehistoric" 
orchards of the State. 

From the period of the secularization of the missions the 
early fruit industry began to decline. In a few instances the 
orchards were kept up to their original standard of excellence, 
but these were exceptional cases, and when General Fremont 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 13 

visited California in 1846, he wrote of them that " little remains 
of the orchards that were kept in high cultivation at the 
missions. * * * Fertile valleys are overgrown with wild 
mustard; vineyards and olive orchards are decayed and 
neglected." 

While most of the orchards were thus allowed to fall into 
decay, a few still maintained their early vigor. Of one of 
these, General Fremont, in his "Geographical Memoir," says: 
*' Among the arid brush-covered hills south of San Diego 
we found little valleys converted by a single spring into 
crowded gardens, where pears, peaches, quinces, pomegranates, 
grapes, olives, and other fruits grew luxuriantly together, the 
little streams acting upon them like a principle of life." 

Some of the earlier settlers, with foresight enough to see 
that there was profit in fruit, secured some of the mission 
orchards, and under skillful treatment and fostering care these 
were made productive again by careful pruning, cultivation, 
and irrigation. These enterprising orchardists reaped a golden 
reward for their labor. 

The early plantings in the north were generally in the 
vicinity of the mines and were small family orchards. But 
little care was bestowed upon them, as fruit-growing then was 
not the science into which it has since developed. All sorts of 
seeds were planted and these were allowed to grow and bear 
when and how they would. But as the demand for better 
varieties of fruit increased, efforts at improvement were made, 
and better stock was sought. 

CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 

The discovery of the fact that citrus fruits could bo pro- 
duced successfully and profitably, gave an impetus to the 
growth of a most important industry in our State, and espe- 
cially in the southern counties, which is almost unprecedented 
in the history of our Union. 

California is essentially devoted to specialties, and while 
each of the numerous industries like the prune, raisin, peach, 
walnut, almond, etc., is pursued in the different sections, and 
while each of these industries is followed to a greater or less 
extent in the surrounding counties, so Southern California 
became the center of the citrus industry. Land which had 



14 STATE BOAED OF HORTICULTURE. 

been regarded as worthless rapidly advanced in value as the 
industry grew, and as its possibilities began to dawn upon 
the knowledge of the grower, its value continued to increase. 
Cities, towns, and villages sprang up, whose birth, existence, 
and future depended upon the condition of the orange market. 
Extensive systems of irrigation were developed, and a large 
extent of territory which had at the commencement of this 
growth been regarded as a desert was converted into a vast 
orchard, filled with pleasant homes and a prosperous popula- 
tion. 

While orange trees were among the earliest introduced into 
our State, having been brought here by the Mission Fathers, it 
may be said that orange culture is of very modern origin, and 
the industry has assumed commercial importance only since 
1880. 

The so-called citrus region is one of indefinite boundaries, 
and the question where oranges would or would not grow 
has given rise to much acrimonious discussion between various 
sections of the State, It may be set down as a fact that the 
orange will flourish in spots over the greater part of the State, 
the exceptions being in the extreme northern counties and the 
higher altitudes of the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range. The 
cultivation of citrus fruits has formed the chief horticultural 
industry of the extreme southern counties, and from this fact 
an impression has gone abroad that they would not flourish 
elsewhere. They are found in places along the entire length 
of the San Joaquin and Sacramento .valleys, and very excellent 
fruit is grown as far north as Shasta. Of course this vast area 
is not all adapted to the culture of citrus fruits, in fact but a 
small proportion of it is so adapted, but enough has been done 
to prove that the climatic conditions required by the orange 
and lemon are to be found over a large part of California. 
While, too, the citrus fruit industry is the principal one of the 
southern counties, not all of the land in that section is suit- 
able for the growth of citrus fruits. 

Outside of the southern counties citrus fruits of exceedingly 
good quality are grown in the foothills of Kern County. In 
Tulare County there is a strip of land along the base of the 
foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains where oranges have 
been planted on a large scale, and they are grown very suc- 
cessfully both at the north and south ends of the belt. Citrus 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 15 

fruits grown at Porterville and Lindsay are rapidly assuming 
a front position and share the honors in this line with other 
similarly favored sections of the south. Oranges thrive all 
along the foothills where water can be obtained. There are no 
damaging frosts or destructive winds. There are a number of 
fine orchards, and every year large areas of new land are 
being planted to citrus fruits. 

Placer County has numerous citrus orchards, and the area 
in citrus culture is gradually extending, especially about New- 
castle, Loomis, Rocklin, and Penryn. 

In Sacramento County considerable attention is now devoted 
to the culture of citrus fruits, at Orangevale and Fair Oaks. 
In the former colony large plantings are to be seen and large 
shipments of this fruit are being made annually therefrom. 

Citrus fruits do well over a large portion of Butte County, 
which county is entitled to the position of leader in the north- 
ern citrus belt. Prior to 1886,. citrus cultuTe was largely 
experimental, although even at that time the fact that oranges 
would grow there and could be made a profitable crop had 
gradually forced itself upon the attention of fruit-growers. 
The winning of the award at the Northern Citrus Fair in Sac- 
ramento that year, confirmed the belief of the citrus-growers 
there, and a great impetus was given to the new industry, 
until now Butte County is better known for her production of 
citrus fruits than for the growing of those which had so far 
proved of greater commercial importance. The colonies of 
Thermalito and Palermo have taken their chief impetus from 
the fact that oranges will grow there, and the planting of 
orange trees has not diminished, but rather increased with 
time. Wyandotte, adjacent to Palermo, is another favorite 
section where citrus fruits are grown successfully. The oldest 
orange tree in Northern California is at Bidwell's Bar (Butte 
County), where it may still be seen. This tree was grown 
from seed of an Acapulco orange planted by Jesse Morrill 
at Sacramento in 1855, and transplanted to its present site in 
1859. (See illustration on next page.) 

In Yuba County large tracts have been set out in orange 
trees, notably at Wheatland and Smartsville. 

In Stanislaus County the area of citrus-growing is being 
rapidly extended. The orange has been successfully grown 
about Knight's Ferry for a number of years, but only recently 



16 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



has the culture of this fruit been pursued on a large scale. 

Extensive plantings are being made about Oakdale. 

The western portion of Amador County is admirably adapted 

to fruit-growing. The same citrus belt traverses this county 

that encircles the northern counties of Butte, Nevada, and 

Placer, and oranges and lemons of remarkable size and flavor 

have been produced there. 

In Calaveras County citrus fruits have not been grown very 

extensively, but at Canipo Seco tliere are orange trees over 

thirty years old, which 
bear good crops annu- 
ally, as also in the 
citrus belt which em- 
braces the northern 
part of the county. 

In Fresno County 
until recently very 
little attention was 
paid to growing citrus 
fruits. A few orange 
orchards in the foot- 
hill regions of the 
countj'^ showed the 
future possibilities of 
the section, and the 
acreage is now being 
rapidl}' extended. The 
oranges and lemons 
exhibited at the Fres- 
no citrus fairs in the 
past four or five years 

compared favorably with those grown in other favored sections 

adjoining. 

In Merced County the orange thrives best in the thermal 

belt of the Sierra Nevada foothills. There are numerous 

plantings in and about Merced City. 

Fine fruit has also been exhibited at the Cloverdale citrus 

fairs held there for the past four seaeons, showing the possi- 
bilities of that Section in citrus culture. 

It will be seen from these statements that the citrus belt of 

California is not confined within any mere geographical boun- 




The oldest orange tree in Northern California, at 
Bidwell's Bar, transplanted inS859. 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 



17 



daries; that no compass and chain can separate the so-called 
southern from the northern citrus belt; that with proper 
conditions citrus fruits can be grown over a large area of the 
State; and that without proper climatic conditions they can 
not be grown successfully. 

Primitive Orchards. — The most extensive orange orchard 
of early planting was at the San Gabriel Mission, in Los 
Angeles County, supposed to have been set out in 1804 
by one "Father" Thomas Sauches. The first orange orchard 
of any note, outside of the missions, although small and 
intended for home use, was planted by Louis Vignes at Los 




The once famous Wolfskill Orange Orchaid— trees forty years old. 

Angeles in 1834. The same year Manuel Requena also planted 
a small orchard. Other plantings soon followed, the most 
notable and important of which was that of the late William 
Wolfskill, at Los Angeles, consisting of two acres set out in 
1841, and this was probably the first orange orchard planted 
in the State with a view to profit. In 1853 the Matthew Keller 
orchard, opposite the Wolfskill orchard, was planted. Another 
orchard was planted north of the San Gabriel Mission, now 
known as the Wilson orchard. These plantings did not 
immediately succeed each other, but a considerable period 
elapsed from the date of the setting out of the mission orchard, 
and even after the success of this latter orchard had been 
assured other plantings were slow and not extensive. 
2c 



18 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

In 1857 a few trees were planted at old San Bernardino by 
L. Van Leuven from seed grown by him. He also the same 
year planted forty-five trees obtained from Los Angeles. About 
two hundred were planted at Grafton by Myron H. Crafts, 
about 1865. The first seeds were planted at Riverside in 1870, 
and the first trees in orchard, grown from these seeds, in 1872 
and 1873, In 1869 Frank A. Kimball planted some orange 
and lemon trees at National City, San Diego County. At that 
time there were two old orange trees growing in El Cajon Valley. 
But little progress was made in orange culture from 1857 
until 1862, at which date there were but twenty-five thousand 
trees in the entire State, and two thirds of these were in the 
Wolfskin orchard. From this date the planting of orange 




Orange Avenue at San Gabriel— trees thirty years old. 

trees increased, but not with any great rapidity until 1873, 
when the first impetus was given to the industry. Southern 
California was out of the reach of railroad transportation. 
Fruit for the market was hauled to Los Angeles in wagons and 
from there transferred to rail and steamer. This process was 
slow and expensive, and but a limited area, and that not the 
best land for the purpose, could be cultivated. The completion 
of the Southern Pacific line, however, gave superior transporta- 
tion facilities, and at the same time opened up a new and better 
fruit region. Riverside had already started, having been set- 
tled in 1869, and a considerable area of orchard land was set 
to oranges. Shipments of fruit to San Francisco and the East 
commenced, and.they brought good returns and encouraged the 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 19 

growers. It was not, however, until the opening of the Atchi- 
son, Topeka & Santa Fe line that the highest development 
took place. From this time on there was a veritable boom in 
orange planting. Some of the returns from these orchards 
were almost incredible, as much as $3,000 from one acre having 
been reported, and $800 to $1,000 being no uncommon yield. 
Of course, an industry that would pay such profits was eagerly 
sought. Land suitable for orchards advanced rapidly in value; 
other lands advanced collaterally, and it became profitable to 
subdue them to this purpose. Land companies, irrigation 
companies, and planting companies were organized with sufii- 
cient capital to carry out their schemes, and the whole extent 
of a country which had been a forbidding waste was soon 
converted into a fruitful orchard. The very face of nature was 
changed, and in a few years Southern California became one 
of the most important sections of the State. 

In 1862, H. M. White planted two orange trees in Frazier 
Valley, east of Porterville, Tulare County, which are still 
bearing and which formed the nucleus of a forty-acre orchard 
that now surrounds the original tree. At Piano, in the same 
county, Mrs. Gibbons, in 1863, planted some orange seed as an 
experiment, which proved successful. Other plantings followed, 
until the present citrus district of Porterville developed. The 
first orchard was planted in Porterville in 1883, by A. R. Henry. 
About the same date a small planting was made at Centerville, 
Fresno County. A few trees were planted by the agent of the 
Marysville and Oroville railroad as early as 1868, in his garden 
at Oroville, Butte County. 

A small orange grove was planted by Nicholas Carriger in 
1871, about two and a half miles west of the town of Sonoma. 
Mr. L. L. Lewis, the present owner, says: "These trees are now 
over three feet in circumference, and some of them will yield 
this season as high as twenty-five boxes of oranges.". 

Thus we find that, as early as 1870, small orange groves had 
been planted all along the foothills from San Diego to Butte 
■County. Plantings in many of the valley counties had also 
been made up to this date. These latter have served to prove 
the inadaptability of the valleys to the growth of the industry, 
■while along the foothills the small beginnings have developed 
into one of the most permanent and profitable branches of 
horticulture in the State. 



20 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



Expansion of Orange Culture. — While oranges had been 
grown in the most favored sections of Southern California, and 
to a very small extent in other portions of the State, to River- 
side is due the great impetus that brought the industry into 
national prominence. The twenty varieties of oranges that 
competed against the world at the New Orleans World's Fair, 
and to which was awarded the gold medal for their superiority, 
were grown at Riverside, and the fact was heralded the world 
over. It is also largely to Riverside that the orange industry 
is indebted for its present importance, from the success attained 
in the cultivation of the Washington Navel, an orange which 
achieved widespread fame for itself and the location (River- 
side) where it was first successfully grown. 




A Riverside Washington Navel Orange Grove. 



The importation of the Australian ladybird ( Vedalia car- 
dinalis) gave another impetus to the industry, and the work of 
this little insect in this State can not be better ill ustrated than by 
the reported shipments of citrus fruits from Los Angeles before 
and after its introduction. For years Los Angeles was the lead- 
ing shipper of citrus fruits, but the introduction and spread of 
the cottony cushion scale {Icerya purchasi) so affected the indus- 
try that it was on the verge of extinction. In 1890, San Ber- 
nardino County (now divided from Riverside), into which this 
scale had not forced its way, shipped 1,705 carloads of oranges, 
and Los Angeles 781. The Vedalia practically exterminated the 
cottony cushion scale, and the returns in 1891 were 2,212 car- 
loads for Los Angeles and 1,708 for San Bernardino, an increase 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 21 

of three carloads for the latter county, while Los Angeles 
advanced in one season from 781 to 2,212, an increase of 1,431 
carloads. The increase of San Bernardino was a natural one, 
but that of Los Angeles was due to the advent of the Vedalia 
and not to the coming in of new orchards. 

The latest tree census from returns made by Count}' 
Assessors shows the number of orange and lemon trees in the 
State to be as follows: 

Oranges. Lemons. 

Bearing Trees 3,132,785 805,084 

Non-bearing Trees 1,837,695 504,272 

Totals 4,970,480 1,309,356 

It is notorious that the returns of assessors are underesti- 
mated, many orchardists reluctantly giving the full number, 
fearing it might entail additional taxation. If twenty per 
cent were added to the above, it would approximate more 
nearly to the true number. By such addition we would have 
3,759,342 bearing and 2,205,234 non-bearing orange trees. 
Of lemon trees we would have 966,101 bearing and 605,126 
non-bearing. The total number would be 5,964,576 orange 
trees and 1,571,227 lemon trees, and a combined total of 
7,535,803 orange and lemon trees. Averaging 100 trees to the 
acre, would give 75,358 acres devoted to this culture. As it 
is estimated that there are about 1,500,000 acres in the so-called 
Thermal Belt extending from San Diego to Tehama County 
suitable for the cultivation of citrus fruits, the foregoing data 
show what room there is for the expansion of this industry. 

CALIFORNIA ORANGE AND LEMON SHIPMENTS. 

From California Fniit-Urower. 

Season. Carloads. No. of Boxes. 

1892-93 5,871 1,972,500 

1893-94 5,022 1,687,500 

1894-95 7,575 2,545,200 

1895-96 6,915 2,323,500 

1896-97 7,350 2,469,600 

1897-98 15,400 5,174,400 

1898-99 10,875 3,654,000 

1899-00 18,400 6,624,000 

1900-01 24,900 8,964,000 

Of the 24,900 cars, or 8,964,000 boxes, of citrus fruit shipped 
during the season of 1900-01, 3.200 cars, or 992,000 boxes 



22 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

were lemons. As the average net value of a carload of oranges 
and lemons to the producer for the season of 1900-01 was about 
$350, the total value of the shipments amounts to $8,715,000. 
About as much more money was disbursed for cultivation, 
packing, and freight, making a grand total for that season of 
about $17,430,000. The above only represents the actual 
amounts that were moved to markets. 

Especially Favorable and Dangerous Localities. — All 

along the belt of country from Tehama County to San Diego 
there are especially protected or favored localities where the 
orange and the lemon grow to perfection, and also localities 
where it would be unsafe to attempt citrus fruit culture as a 
conimercial enterprise. This is caused by the local topography 
of the country and does not depend much on the altitude. 
Wherever cold currents of air from high altitudes flow to the 
valley without interruption, it will not be safe to attempt citrus 
culture at any elevation within the sweep of these currents. 
On the other hand, wherever these descending currents are cut 
off or turned aside by spurs of the mountains, leaving the 
warm atmosphere of the days undisturbed during the nights, 
there orange and lemon culture may be engaged in without 
danger from frost. In other words, the eddies of air currents 
must be selected and the main flow of these currents must be 
avoided. 

Every one who has traveled along these Sierra foothills 
parallel with the valleys, particularly in the winter season and 
at night, will recall his surprise at the sudden changes of the 
temperature of the atmosphere within short distances. He 
may also remember to have noticed tender plants and shrubs 
seared and frost bitten, while just over a ridge or cone the same 
plants and shrubs were in full leaf and growing luxuriantly. 
Want of attention to these facts has caused many a disastrous 
failure in the cultivation of citrus fruits in California. 

It may be here observed that these peculiar natural 
phenomena are more striking and their lessons are more 
imperative north than south of the Tehachapi pass — for the 
reason that south of that point the coast range of mountains is 
broken up into fragments, and the tempering influences of the 
waters and breezes of the ocean are more direct and powerful 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 23 

than farther north, where this range is practically unbroken 
and the citrus belt is farther inland. These disadvantages of 
the northern section are, however, somewhat counteracted in the 
fact that the drier and warmer summer atmosphere is a greater 
guarantee against the spread and ravages of insect pests. The 
more elevated and inland localities in the south have this same 
advantage over localities nearer the coast. 

There are orange and lemon trees growing in nearly all of 
the counties of the State not exclusively in the mountainous 
sections, and many of these trees are bearing more or less fruit 
of very fair quality. For climatic reasons, however, the citrus 
fruit industry is and must be confined to a belt of country 
lying along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 
This belt is called the " Thermal Belt." It stretches from San 
Diego to Tehama County, a distance of over seven hundred 
miles, and varies in width from three or four miles to twenty- 
five or thirty. In this belt it is estimated there are about 
1,500,000 acres of land adapted to the safe cultivation of citrus 
fruits on a commercial basis. 

The altitude ranges from 30 to 1,800 feet above sea-level. 
The mean summer temperature of this belt is somewhat higher 
in the northern portion than in the southern, but the mean 
winter temperature is higher in the southern than in the 
northern portion. The mean temperature for the year does 
not vary more than four degrees throughout the whole belt. 

POLLINATION— HYBRIDS. 

The mixing of the pollen among the flowers of the species 
has given birth to innumerable hybrids, distinguished as such 
and designated as varieties, by their remaining constant, i. e., 
not reverting to the mother type after continuous propaga- 
tion. With the constant multiplication of varieties it would 
be difiicult to trace to what species many hybrids belong. 
Many partake of the lemon, the orange, and the citron. 

The flower of the orange is nothing but a transformed 
branch, coming out of either the axilla of an ordinary leaf or 
from that of an abortive leaf, usually called a bract. This 
transformed branch, or flower, in the orange, consists of sev- 
eral whorls or transformed leaves, viz: the calyx whorl, the 



24 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

corolla whorl, the stamina whorl or whorls, and ovary whorl 
or whorls. The latter, in the citrus fruit, consists ordinarily 
of two distinct whorls — the outer or rind whorl, and the inner 
or pulp whorl. The flowers of the greater number of species 
are single — possessing an abundance of pollen. Double flow- 
ers are often produced by the growth of additional whorls or 
petals. 

Double flowers have a tendency to fruit-doubling. The 
peculiarity of these fruits exists in the ovary before fertiliza- 
tion, and the fruit exhibiting it may develop without having 
been fertilized. It has rarely any seeds, and when present are 
very small and imperfect. Such instances of seedless fruit 
plainly show that the so-called superfoetation could not have 
been the result of excess fertilization, as there are no germs to 
be fertilized, and even if there are any, they must be so imper- 
fect that no fertilization can take place. This result might 
also occur from imperfection of the sexual organs. 

The orange within an orange is nothing but a doubling of the 
fruit or ovary whorls. It is the result of the doubling of the 
flower. Gallesio says: "Certain varieties, like the double- 
flowered bergamot, when not highly cultivated and left to 
themselves, lose by degrees the character of giving double 
flowers and bear only single ones." 

Artificial fecundation whenever applied has given varying 
results, and when the action was effected upon the ovules the 
fruit was not modified, but the ovules grew into seeds, which 
when planted produced trees and fruit entirely distinct from 
the parent trees. 

Fecundation is effected naturally among pollen-producing 
flowers by insects, birds, the wind, and bv friction. The 
moment the flowers reach maturity and are ready for fecunda- 
tion the stigma of the pistil appears as if gummed with a 
honey-like substance, and serves to retain the dust-like pollen 
when applied to it. The flower with which to effect fecunda- 
tion must be taken when nearly ready to bloom, must be 
thrifty, the corolla removed, and the anthers rubbed upon the 
stigma to be fructified. The operation is repeated until the 
stigma assumes its normal state, and care must be exercised 
not to miss the moment of blooming in the pistil. 

Varieties of the orange are innumerable, and have of late 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 25 

years been imported from all over the globe. While many of 
these possess good qualities, the majority lack the most 
essential characteristics to be worthy of culture for profit. 
Attempts to improve upon the varieties now fruiting have 
been made by cross pollination, but without results of much 
value, although numerous varieties possessed of some merit 
have been thus originated. The best results have been 
through Dame Nature, and chance seedlings of high merit 
have been produced without the aid of man. But while some 
of these imported sorts and home-grown seedlings have been 
planted quite largely throughout the State, the fruit, being 
devoid of special characteristics through which their qualities 
could be known to the trade and distinguished from the 
ordinary common seedling, often sell for no more, if as much. 

The only variet}^ produced by what may be termed a peculiar 
method of propagation is an exceptionally fine type of Navel 
by A. C. Thomson, of Duarte. The process, which is men- 
tioned by ancient writers upon agriculture, was first applied 
in this State by Mr. Thomson, and was performed by a close 
intermarriage of the wood of several varieties, which, by growing 
together, resulted in a combination of the characteristics of 
the various factors. The secret of the operation lies in the 
matching of two half-buds of the same size and of different 
sorts. 

The process Mr. Thomson describes as follows: "The bud 
is composed of two half-buds of the same size put together and 
inserted as one, waxed over, after being concaved to fit the 
convex side of the stock, and concaved a little also in the split 
so as to bring both edges of the germ together closely. This 
has to be done of course with a very thin, sharp knife. Now 
say, for instance, that one of the half-buds is a Washington 
Navel and the other half a St. Michael. These grow together 
and form one shoot. From this shoot next season take buds, 
and from Malta Blood take buds of equal size and maturity; 
split and unite these halves as one bud, fit them well and 
neatly together, wax over lightly, and cover with a wax 
wrapper; string will not do, as the buds would dry out. Next 
season again take these buds from this new growth and halve 
them with half-buds of Mediterranean Sweet. Here, then, 
you get a growth which includes all the varieties named. At 



26 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

the end of three weeks from budding, the wrapper has to be 
removed and the buds examined with a magnifying glass. If 
the union is complete at the crown of the germ return the 
wrapper, to exclude sun and air until the bud starts to grow. 
Sometimes only one-half of the bud starts to grow; all such 
should be cut out and the budding done over again. Sometimes 
both halves die, or both halves grow separately. Then it has 
to be done over again on a new place in the stock. There 
ought to be at least fifty buds of each combination put in at 
the same time to cover failures." 

Mr. Thomson has distributed a great many buds and trees 
among his neighbors and in other sections of the State. The 
trees have invariably continued to produce a thin-skinned 
orange and seemingly remaining constant. Many have claimed 
that the variety has not produced fruit as grown on the original 
trees, but Mr. Thomson says this has not been on trees which 
he has supplied. The buds then must have come from other 
trees that are not the true "Improved Navel." 

METHODS USED IN HYBRIDIZING PLANTS.* 

The process of hybridizing plants is in itself neither difficult 
nor mysterious, it being simply necessary to understand the 
general structure of the flower to be used. The flowers of the 
tomato, pear, and orange may be taken as illustrating the 
common forms, although, of course, very many modifications 
occur. The envelopes of these flowers, as in the case of the 
flowers of most cultivated plants, consist of two whorls of 
modified leaves. The outer whorl, which is known as the 
calyx, is commonly green like the foliage and is divided into 
several distinct or more or less united lobes, or sepals; while the 
inner whorl, or corolla, is usually of some bright color other 
than green, and its diff'erent divisions or lobes are known as 
petals. In some cases, as in the lily, the calyx and corolla 
are of the same color, so that they are not easily distinguish- 
able; while in still other cases, as in oaks, walnuts, etc., the 
corolla is entirely wanting. 

The essential, or sexual, organs of the flower, the stamens 

*By Walter T. Swingle and Herbert J. Webber, Special Agents Department 
of Agriculture. Yearbook 1897, p. 385. 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 27 

and pistils, are found inside the calyx and corolla, and it is 
with these organs that the hybridizer is most concerned. The 
stamens, or male organs, of the plant are usually several in 
number, and are composed of an upper swollen portion, the 
anther, which is borne on a more or less slender stalk called 
the filament. In some flowers, as in those of the tomato, the 
filament is very short, and in others is entirely wanting, the 
anthers being borne at the base of the corolla. The very 
numerous small, yellow, powdery grains of pollen, which con- 
stitute the male fecundating elements, are borne in sacks in 
the anthers. When the anther matures, these sacks burst open 
and the pollen is exposed. A quantity of this pollen must be 
transferred, either by natural or artificial means, to the stigma 
of the female organ in order to insure fecundation. The appli- 
cation of pollen to the stigma is designated pollination, and 
successful pollination — that is, the application of pollen to the 
stigma, followed by fecundation — is termed fertilization. 

The pistil or pistils, which are the female organs, occupy the 
center of the flower and are surrounded by the stamens. The 
upper portion of the pistil is usually somewhat swollen and 
more or less rough. It is on this portion of the pistil, known 
as the stigma, that the pollen must fall to produce fecundation. 

In the majority of plants the stamens and pistils are pro- 
duced in the same flower, as in the tomato and orange, but in 
certain plants they are produced in different flowers on the 
same plant, as in walnuts, castor beans, etc., or on different 
plants, as in the willow, poplar, etc. 

In undertaking to hybridize plants artificially, it is well to 
remember that in many plants the stamens and pistils when 
in the same flower mature at different times — a provision to 
insure cross-pollination (the application of the pollen of one 
flower to the stigma of another). In a large majority of such 
cases the stamens ripen first, discharging their pollen before 
the pistil is receptive. The most important feature in the work 
of crossing is to exclude from the stigma all pollen except that 
which it is desired to use. The prevention of self-pollination (the 
transfer of pollen to the stigma of the same flower) in perfect 
flowers — that is, flowers containing both stamens and pistils — 
necessitates the careful opening of the flowers intended for 
hybridization while they are still immature, and the cutting or 



28 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



pulling off of the anthers before they burst and allow the escape 
of the pollen. This process is termed emasculation. * * * 
In the manipulation of orange flowers mature buds nearly 
ready to open are selected and the tips of the corolla carefully 
pried apart until the stamens are exposed. In these flowers 
the anthers are attached to the filaments by very slender 
threads, which are easily broken, so that the simplest method 
of removing the stamens is to pull them off with fine-pointed 
forceps. The latter may also be conveniently used in prying 
apart the corolla lobes of the bud. During the process of 
emasculation in this and all other cases great care must be 
exercised not to open the stamens and accidentally pollinate 
the flower. All insects must be watched and carefully excluded. 
Fig. 3 shows an emasculated flower ready to bag. 




Fig. 1— Orange flower bud, 
showing stage which 
should be selected for 
emasculation. (Natural 
size.) 



Fir;. 2— Mature orange flower. 
(Natural size.) 



(After Swingle and Webber.) 



Fig. 3 -An emasculated 
orange flower ; a, shows 
where anthers were de- 
tached. (Natural size.) 



After emasculating the flower, a bag of some closely woven 
cloth or of paper should be carefully passed over the twig bear- 
ing the flower and tied around the stem below the flower in 
such a manner as to effectually exclude all insects and foreign 
pollen. The manila paper sacks used by grocers are employed 
almost exclusively for this purpose. In a few days after 
emasculation and bagging, when the pistils have had time to 
mature, the sacks must be removed and the pistils pollinated, 
after which the sacks should be replaced as before and allowed 
to remain until fecundation has taken place and all danger 
from the action of foreign pollen is over. In most cases the 
sacks should then be removed, as they are likely to injure the 
development of the fruit. In some cases, as in the orange, 
where the pistil is nearly mature when the bud is opened, the 
pollen may be applied to the stigma when the flower is emas- 
culated, thus avoiding the trouble of opening the bag later. 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 29 

The flowers selected for emasculation and hybridization 
should be full-sized, perfect in all respects, and conveniently- 
situated. Those on the end of a twig frequently set fruit best. 
All the flowers on the branch which are not used should be 
cut off. Frequently several flowers of the same age can be 
selected on the same branch, emasculated, and inclosed under 
the same bag. 

In hybridizing, many different methods are followed in 
applying the pollen. In most cases where an abundance of 
pollen can be secured the freshly burst anthers from one plant 
may be taken with fine-pointed forceps and rubbed over the 
stigma of the other until sufficient pollen has been transferred. 
This is probably the easiest and safest method in most cases. 
Some hybridizers transfer the pollen with a small ladle or 
camel's-hair brush, and occasionally this method may be found 
somewhat convenient, especially where the pollen is brought 
from some distance and has largely escaped from the anthers. 

After each pollination it is of the utmost importance to 
label the bag in such a way that there will be no question as 
to what it contains. These labels should be allowed to remain 
after the bag has been removed. As fruits, like oranges, etc., 
approach maturity it is very desirable that they be inclosed in 
gauze bags firmly tied to the branches. Such bags allow the 
normal development of the fruit, protect it from being picked 
accidentally, and in case the fruit falls prematurely preserve 
it in connection with the label. 

WHAT ARE HYBRIDS? * 

The term hybrid is by many applied only to the offspring 
obtained by crossing two plants or animals sufficiently different 
to be considered by naturalists as distinct species, while the 
terms mongrel and cross are used to designate the offspring of 
two classes or varieties of one species. It was formerly supposed 
that all hybrids were more or less sterile, in contradistinction to 
mongrels, which were believed to be very sterile. It has been 
found, however, that many hybrids, in the narrow sense, are 
very fertile, and that some mongrels are nearly sterile. Since 
it is impossible to indicate by any two words, such as hybrid 

* By Walter T. Swingle and Herbert J. Webber, Special Agents Department 
of Agricvilture. Yearbook 1897, p. 384. 



30 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

or mongrel, the various degrees of difference of the forms crossed, 
the word hybrid is here used, conformably to the Century 
Dictionary, as a generic term, to include all organisms arising 
from a cross of two forms noticeably different, whether the 
difference be great or slight. Adjectives are sometimes used to 
indicate the grade of the forms crossed, such as racial hybrid, 
bigeneric hybrid, etc. Where a hybrid of two species is crossed 
writh a third species a trispecific hybrid results. 

The offspring produced by the union of two plants identical 
in kind, but separated in descent by at least several seed 
generations, is often called a crossed, cross-fertilized, or cross- 
bred plant, but it is not a hybrid, as the essential character of 
a hybrid is that it results from the union of plants differing 
more or less in kind; or, in other words, is the result of a union 
between different races, varieties, species, genera, etc. On the 
other hand, flowers impregnated with their own pollen, with 
the pollen of another flower on the same plant, or even with 
pollen from another plant derived from the same original 
stock by cuttings, grafts, etc., are said to be self-fertilized, and 
the offspring resulting from such unions are also termed self- 
fertilized plants. With some plants, such as tobacco and 
wheat, self-fertilization is the rule. In many cases, however, 
t\ie flowers are so constructed that cross-fertilization is neces- 
sary, all possibility of self-pollination being precluded, as in 
the case of hemp and other plants having the male and female 
flowers on separate individuals. 



PURPOSE AND GROWTH OF PRIMAL TYPES.* 

Nature, unaided by animate creatures, sets her aim and 
■degree of excellence around one central purpose. It is to pro- 
duce a germ to perpetuate her products, a seed, and within 
that seed a cluster of highly organized cells, that possess 
within themselves an impulse, and a power, under favorable 
■conditions, to produce a type nearly identical with the parent. 

We can not comprehend the structure of this tiny association 
of cells, the delicate adjustment of its parts which give us the 
variety of the orchard, the latent impulse that has been 
imparted to this wonderful unit of growth. It is that enigma 

*By Wm. C. Fuller, of Colton, Cal. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 








PLATE II. 






















i^^B 


1 














H 




^ 




-•• 


jI^kS^^^^^^M '',-^«»aB 


•1.;;, <^fl^P 


B 
















'^IM 


^y i)> 






^^^^k^ 'K^^I^H^H^^v 


, Jj^ 


j^. * .. 








^ ^^^^H 






1 


i 


' 




H 














i ' 















SEEDLING TAHITI ORANGE-PRIMAL TYPE. (Reduced.) 



32 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

of life, co-equal and co-splendent with the human soul, the 
analysis of being. 

It is a necessity with nature that every precaution of pro- 
tection should surround this seed in its growth, to guard it 
against destruction, and to complete its perfect development. 

The law of man's self-existence is, that when the seed becomes 
his food whereby he lives, every effort of nature must be sec- 
onded to make a perfect seed protection. When the seed is 
not his food, then we must change, or entirely eliminate, one or 
more of these natural guards, and allow other qualities to 
displace these protective qualities. 

If wild areas were occupied by a species where the varieties 
could not mix by pollination, those varieties that developed 
vital seeds would thrive by perpetuating a race only slightly 
at variance with the primal type. 

If the area was occupied by mixed varieties, those having 
the most virile pollen, or those the best sexed, would conquer in 
the race for existence, and only that variety remain which 
would be surrounded by the greatest protection against all 
possible enemies. 

This would be accomplished by a change in each generation 
of seed, imparted to it by pollen possessing the greatest 
strength and enduring qualities. The growing plant from 
such a seed, having more resistance to climatic changes, more 
strength of root to forage in the soil, and more power of leaf 
to elaborate its fruit, would produce, first, intermediate varie- 
ties, and, finally, occupy the whole area with a variety indis- 
tinguishable from the strongest type. 

Continuous cross-pollination would, with each generation, 
tend to eliminate the weaker variety, while seedless varieties 
would be destroyed immediately. 

It is this known law in its action, in natural selection and 
adaptation, that the Citrus vulgaris var. higaradia, or the sour- 
bitter orange, may be regarded as the primitive type of many 
of the California oranges. Whether or not this is the germinal 
and historic species from which the historic varieties came, 
it is the natural protective type to represent the purpose of 
nature in the production of seed. 

Citrus Vulgaris, var. Bigaradia. — If nature had marked this 
tree and fruit with the sign "Touch not, taste not," she could 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 33 

not have fulfilled her purpose in perpetuating its life better 
than she has with the disagreeable qualities and outside aids 
with which she has surrounded it. 

The tree habits and fruit-growth differ from other varieties 
in many particulars. The tree is low for a standard, rarely 
reaching over thirty feet in height. This habit guards it from 
the effects of high winds and allows it to get the greatest 
benefit from the radiated heat, when the direct rays of the sun 
are spent. By its low, conelike growth the lower fruit is pro- 
duced having great strength and character, allowing a small 
compact cell to do an immense work, in the leaf and root. The 
leaf is winged; the large petioles below the articulation act as 
a protection and help, in case of injury to the blade of the leaf 
by degrees of heat or cold, or lack of nutrition and moisture. 
The flowers are shortened, thick petaled, and diffused with color 
ranging from white to pink. The little investigation that has 
been given to the study of the nectaries, and their sweet con- 
tents, of the orange forbids a comparison with other varieties. 
As in this family of plants this characteristic is a staminal or 
male development, and by analogy with the known habits of 
wild flowers it is certain that the sour orange has large, well- 
filled nectaries, aiding, as does the color of its petals, the dis- 
tribution of its pollen by insect agencies. While these organs 
may not be regarded as protecting the individual, as the thorns 
and bitter of the fruit, yet to the species and staminal varieties 
it is one of the essential means of self-protection in pollination 
by the aid of insects. The fruit is unsightly and rough, bitter 
and acrid. The oil is pungent and the fragrance heavy, as 
are the oils of the leaves and flowers. The pulp is sour and 
partakes of the bitterness of the rind. The oil cells are con- 
cave. The tree carries well-formed thorns distributed to the 
ends of the branches, and the fruit when ripe has strong 
germinating seeds for reproduction. Every quality and develop- 
ment of the tree is protective, and these staminal qualities have 
guarded its life, under adverse conditions, for centuries from 
destruction by birds, animals, and mankind. 

The characteristics of the bitter orange are given in detail, 

as this orange, highly sexualized, and strong in its staminate 

and pistillate power, is a type for all, and has imparted some 

of its qualities to all the varieties of our orchards. How has 

3c . 



34 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

this orange with its combination of disagreeable qualities been 
changed and modified, and some of its qualities eliminated, to 
give us the Konah, the St. Michael, the Washington Navel, 
and other meritorious varieties? 

Staminal or Male Characteristics. — By the law of vegetable 
growth, plants construct and form themselves; they increase 
and multiply themselves. The orange multiplies by the root 
growth of adventitious buds, that eventually form perfect 
trees; by cuttings; by the development of buds in the limb, 
that grow to branches and fruitfulness; and by a seed embryo 
developed in the ripened fruit. The adventitious bud in the 
root, and the branch bud are the result of the sex impulse dis- 
tributed through the entire tree structure. The embryo of the 
seed is the result of special adaptations in the structure of the 
leaf. The perfect development of the nucleus of the seed is 
the strength of the united reproductive functions of the entire 
tree, and although the root and branch buds are liable to 
"sport" and give new or modified varieties, it is to the stami- 
nate and pistillate modifications that we must look for the 
primary changes in the fruit and tree habits of growth. 

The least modification impressed upon the pollen impulse, 
and the receptivity of the ovarian cell, will change, modify, or 
eliminate some habit of the tree, or quality of the fruit, in the 
embryo and bud. 

It is apparent that in the bitter orange of the bigaradia, the 
male or staminal power is in the ascendancy. The whole tree, 
in all its manifestations, is suifused by this power. It primar- 
ily affects the cell of the leaf, the branch, and root. It influ- 
ences the vitality, the strength, and the compactness of the 
protoplasmic unit in the pollen germ. It is manifested in the 
heavy compact limb, the stout eftective thorn, the resistant 
and strong terminal root growth, the thick leaf, the pungent 
oils, the bitter compounds of the rind and cells of the carpel, 
and in the capacity to resist the elaboration of sugar from the 
fruit acid, compelling the slow development of a strong germi- 
native and generative seed. 

Modifications in the Pollen Impulse. — Either by nature or cul- 
tivation the strength of the pollen impulse was changed. The 
staminate or male power of the bitter orange was acted upon, 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 35 

and its supremacy destroyed. When that was accomplished, 
those qualities that nature used to protect the seed were either 
without necessity or modified to the changed habits of the new 
tree. As these changes were produced, the whole tree was 
acted upon to adjust a correlated growth. The germ cells were 
changed in their capacity to produce a constant type. The 
vegetative functions were immediately increased, and those 
parts of the tree impulse put forth a growth modifying those 
protective growths built upon the defense and perpetuity of the 
seed. As an immediate result of the loss in the pollen impulse, 
the leaf increased in surface. The root cells were enlarged 
and enabled to absorb liquids to meet an increase of leaf 
evaporation. The whole tree acquired a greater heat range 
and became more tropical. These modifications of the micro- 
scopic pollen cell in its constructive energy to maintain a per- 
manent type are seen in the habits of growth and fruit of the 
sweet orange {Citrus aurantium) of our orchards. 

Citrus Aurantium. — This orange is in such marked contrast 
to the bitter orange that eminent authorities have debated 
its origin, and have considered it a species equal with the 
bitter orange, and awarded to both the ancestry of whole 
groups of varieties. It carries a strong though weakened 
reproductive function. Its departure from the type of the 
bitter orange is in the loss of staminal power. The pistillate 
or vegetable growths have increased by a readjustment of plant 
energy in the floral branch which has weakened the virility of 
the pollen impulse. 

When the two varieties are compared, the necessity for a 
different parentage does not appear. The lines of modifica- 
tion follow the generative impulse, and this possibility of the 
germ type to variation gives the key to unlock the cause of 
seed and bud variation in the great number of varieties and 
monstrosities. The generative force broken in the type unit, 
the combinations of its qualities were resolved into groups. 
The type unit being impossible, the group unit appears in the 
pollen, the seed, and the bud, giving us the varieties of the 
orchard, each having one or more characteristics of the 
historic type. 

The sweet orange is intermediate between the bitter orange 
and the seedless varieties. In comparison with the bitter 



36 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

orange the pistillate impulse has displaced the staminate 
impulse, which appears in a weakened reproductive function. 
The vegetative growths have increased ; the leaf is larger and 
has lost its relative thickness, and except in new and rampant 
growths is nearly wingless. The thorns have lost much of 
their protective qualities and are easily changed to a branch, 
and in rare cases develop a sessile floral branch which tips the 
thorn with a flower. The changes in the fruit are marked. 
The oil cells of the rind are convex, and have lost the pungent 
oils, becoming more delicate in fragrance. The same compara- 
tive delicacy in the oils is seen in the leaf and the blossoms. 
The bitter compounds are freed from the inner cells of the car- 
pels, and are only feebly present in the rind. The power to 
produce acidity is impaired, and the vegetative functions cause 
the tree to shorten its season of fruit-ripening by the aborted 
development of its seed. 

In this comparison of the two varieties of oranges, the bitter 
and the sweet, we see the positive staminal qualities of the 
bitter orange are in the sweet orange either entirely eliminated, 
weakened, or replaced by the growth of negative qualities that 
could not be observed in union with the overpowering staminal 
qualities. We see that the sweet orange does not represent 
the complete unit of nature, but consists of a division of 
qualities, comprised in a large group only. However marked 
this change, our California seedling still retains the largest 
group of qualities representing the type of our orchard 
varieties. 

Tendency of Orange Culture. — The tendency of orange culture 
in California is to displace, as far as possible, the type of 
varieties, as represented by the bitter and sweet oranges, and to 
extend the orchard growths in the direction of the variety that 
eliminates the seed growth and possesses only a small and 
sometimes feeble group of inherited qualities. This tendency 
arises from a desire to grow a sweet orange, and to a great extent 
is a misunderstanding of those qualities which, in combination, 
make a model fruit. 

Variety Groups. — In the St. Michael we have a group of 
qualities that intensified the staminal impulse of the sweet 
orange, as shown in the production of seeds. It retains the 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 37 

quality of late ripening of the bitter orange, and possesses a 
citrus quality of great merit associated with a heavy, compact 
cell growth. 

In the Homosassa (or a variety known as the Homosassa), 
a Florida variety, we have a staminate group of qualities, 
giving to the fruit a high color, tending to seedlessness and an 
early ripening of the fruit. As we should expect from its 
tendency to depart from the development of seed, it is not 
possessed of the citrus quality of the St. Michael. 

The Tardive, or Hart's Late, is an orange late in ripening, 
and with a feeble or impotent pollination. It is practically 
seedless. The rich coloring of the flesh, united with its slow- 
maturity, allows this fruit to be picked in different stages of 
acidity. When well colored the citrus quality is past. 

The Ruby Blood is an orange with a fluctuating group of 
qualities. It is deeper flushed than the Maltese Blood, sweet 
and earl}'. It develops the navel mark like the Washington 
Navel, and then is of marked sweetness and has a freedom 
from seeds. 

In the Sweet Seville, an orange unworthy of cultivation in 
California, we see the curious phenomenon of a division of the 
impulse of ripening. The cells of the flesh almost exhaust the 
acidity by its elaboration to sugar, while the cells of the rind 
are immature and green. When the rind is colored the fruit 
is insipid and worthless. 

The Washington Navel, the great seedless orange of Cali- 
fornia, is the popular variety and its plantings exceed any 
other. Keeping in view the natural law, that a type must 
possess many qualities to develop and protect a seed germ and 
bud integrity to perpetuate itself, that these qualities must 
be the result of the staminal impulse imparted by the pollen 
to the perfected seed, and that a pervading staminal strength 
must be diffused in the entire tree structure for bud growth 
and development, we see in this orange from Bahia how far it 
is possible to change from the purpose of nature. We see a 
small group of negative qualities wrested from a natural type. 
The displacement of its parts, culminating in the markings at 
the apex of the fruit, 'and from which it has acquired its popular 
name, is constant. As an inconstant habit it is not uncommon. 
All the varieties have occasional developments of the navel 
mark. It is often observed in the common seedling, and is 



38 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

very common in the Ruby Blood. It has been popularly be- 
lieved, when seen in other varieties, to be the result of cross- 
pollination from the Washington or some other variety of 
Navel. In the light of recent investigations this is deemed 
impossible. Experiments the coming season will undoubtedly 
be made to substantiate this view. I am inclined to think that 
this was among the first changes in the bitter orange, to destroy 
the staminal supremacy of that fruit. Whenever a fruit car- 
ries this mark it produces less seed and carries greater relative 
sweetness to its acidity. The original plants were received 
at Washington from Bahia, Brazil, and a number were sent by 
the Government to Florida and California for cultivation. 
The different results of cultivation and environment in the 
two areas show marked tendencies in tree development and 
fruitfulness. These questions arise: Were those plants of uni- 
form excellence? Did the Florida plants possess the same 
inherited qualities that the California plants possessed? Did 
the trees received at Riverside each possess equal excellence as 
a budding stock, and does the tree now in Washington possess 
the average inherited qualities of those in California and 
Florida? Satisfactory answers to these questions have an 
important bearing in solving the cause of the different develop- 
ments of the variety as grown in the two areas. If there 
were inherent qualities of variation in the plants distributed 
to the two areas, the difference in the habits of tree growth and 
fruitfulness would be in part accounted for. If plants of known 
purity of strain were exchanged by the two sections, Florida 
and California, consisting of well-developed buds, on both the 
sour and sweet stocks, and planted in average climatic con- 
ditions in the two areas, should show a tendency to change 
their habits of growth and fruitfulness, then climatic conditions 
would be considered a cause sufficient for these effects and the 
question of type inheritance be answered. Buds from the tree 
at Washington distributed to the two sections and treated as 
those exchanged by the two producing areas would further 
simplify the solution of inherent qualities. 

Navel Unfruitfulness. — The orange-growers of Florida observed 
the unfruitfulness of the Navel, in that State, early in its history. 
This seemed to show itself in the young trees as well as in the 
older orchards. The absence of pollen was noticed, and its 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 39 

luifruitfulness was attributed to this unsexed development of the 
navel bloom. Professor Webber, of the United States Sub-Labo- 
ratory, was led to believe that the Navelin California produced an 
abundance of well-developed pollen, which was the cause of its 
fruiting in this State. Professor Cook observed, some time since, 
the absence of pollen in the navel' bloom in California, This 
discovery established the normal unsexed quality of the Navel, 
in both the great areas of Florida and California. The staminate, 
or male, impulse is aborted and fails to produce developed pol- 
len grains, or if it occasionally appears, is a lingering impulse 
belonging to an incidental floral leaf. The impulse still exists 
to produce a weakened staminal bud development. As this 
development is arrested in the stamens and is only feebly 
present in the bud, just sufficient to cause the growth of the 
floral whorl bearing an anther without pollen, it would seem 
as though the staminal impulse was a quality pertaining to 
the root and in nowise dependent on the vegetative processes 
of the leaf, and in the Navel it is as though nature had almost 
withdrawal this force from the Navel tree and dissipated it in a 
vigorous root growth. 

When it was known that the Navel was not self-pollinated, 
it was affirmed that it was fruitful from the action of pollen 
from other varieties planted in close proximity. The proof of 
this was asked by Professor Webber and the question was sub- 
mitted to Mr. E. W. Holmes and Mr. J. H. Reed of Riverside, 
Avhere large areas were planted far from pollen varieties. These 
able observers, aided by other horticulturists, have failed to 
detect any difference in the fruitfulness of the Navel when 
grown far from other varieties and outside the area of mixed 
pollination. 

Mr. B. M. Lelong, along the same line of investigation, 
says: "Cross-pollination only tends to the production of seeds, 
and can not in any way increase the production of fruit." 
Professor Webber says to the same effect: "That we should not 
take means to secure the cross-pollination of our Navel trees, 
hoping thereby to secure a larger crop of fruit. The effect of 
the cross-pollination apparently being the production of seedy 
fruit, but not necessarily more fruit." 

From these experiments and observations we may conclude 
that in the two great areas of Florida and California, the Navel 



40 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

will fruit without pollination, and that fecundation will not 
increase fruitfulness in either area, but simply cause the devel- 
opment of the embryo into rudimentary or perfect seeds. 

Professor Webber,' in a series of experiments in artificial 
pollination of the Navel, proved by them that some of the 
pistils of the Navel could transmit the impulse of the foreign 
pollen to the ovules of both the Washington and the Parson 
Navel, and that the embryo developed into full and perfect 
seeds, carrying a marked individuality, so apparent that from 
photographs of these seeds their form and appearance indicated 
the variety of pollen experimented with. 

We can infer from this how few are the qualities and how 
small the group is that remain of this variety to represent a 
type. This shows the Navel to be very sensitive to climate 
and treatment. The climate of .Florida destroys its profitable 
bearing in that State. Its fruitage, as a profitable orange in 
Arizona, from information received from that Territory, is an 
experiment which indicated that it will not be profitable to 
cultivate it there. Its area of fruitage is therefore confined to 
California, as the only area in the United States where the 
conditions exist for its development, and in many locations 
and areas in this State where planted conditions will be found 
as unsuitable to its best growth. Its fruitfulness and habits 
are too sensitive to climatic changes and treatment to sustain 
the universal confidence reposed in it as a variety to plant in 
all conditions and soils. The orchardist should be enlisted to 
plant more sexualized varieties to guard his future interests. 

Results of Experiments. — These experiments and observations 
are valuable, showing — 

(1) That the Washington Navel is without staminal devel- 
opment of pollen. 

(2) That it fruits without the aid of foreign pollen. 

(3) That pollination would not increase its fruitfulness. 

(4) That the pistillate, or female quality, exists in the 
capacity to produce seeds, but is modified and fails to impress 
its growth and transmit to it its own characteristics. 

(5) That the readiness of the pistil to respond to artificial 
pollination, and its absence from seeds where an abundance of 
free foreign pollen has been distributed, show a weakness in 
the pistil to exude the adherent solvents to attach the pollen 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — POLLINATION. 41 

germ and excite germination, or a weakness of the nectaries to 
furnish sweets to attract the natural insect aids. 

(6) That the capacity of the Navel to produce pollen is an 
inherent weakness of the staminal impulse in the tree and is 
not dependent upon climatic conditions. This removes the 
Navel from the varieties that can be modified by germinal 
changes in the embryo or seed, and classifies it with those 
varieties which will show modifications by adaptation in their 
bud development only. That if the same inherent bud quali- 
ties were possessed by the parent trees of Florida and Cali- 
fornia, unfruitfulness of the Navel variety may be expected to 
appear in the orchards of California. 

Adaptability. — The great questions of profitable and success- 
ful orange culture in California are the adaptability of each 
variety to an area that will produce, as far as possible, a perfect 
fruit, and the selection of such groups of qualities that will 
meet a market demand during the season. 

That one principal variety, like the Washington Navel, can 
fulfill these conditions is impossible. Several well-chosen 
varieties will meet the market demand. 

If a relatively sweet orange for the early market is desired 
we should choose one in which the processes of fruit growth 
hasten the period of ripening, as in the Washington Navel and 
Homosassa — one the great seedless orange of California, and 
the other a modified staminal type. This caution should be 
given as to the Navel and all seedless varieties. 

There is a subtle and delicate citrus quality that must be 
associated in all the qualities of an orange. It can only be 
described by saying that it appeals to the intellectual percep- 
tions, as that natural goodness and excellence inherent in the 
choice products of nature. This can be eliminated from the 
orange and render the fruit insipid and valueless. We must 
be careful in the selections of stock and bud so that we will 
draw toward this noble fruit and gift of nature the happy union 
of staminate and blended qualities that awards this halo of 
ambrosial excellence. 

If we select the late varieties — the St. Michael and the 
Tardive — we will have in the first a strong late orange, and in 
the last a seedless orange, both of good qualities. Could we 
add a seedling, a medium early, sweet, with few seeds, and a 



42 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

fine citrus quality, we will have oranges that will supplement 
the Navel with comparative excellence and meet all market 
demands. 

With the varieties modified and adapted to the best climatic 
areas to produce the best fruit, and perpetuated in bud and 
seed bj' scientific direction to respond to normal productiveness, 
growth, and longevity, a foundation will be laid to rear a great 
and glorious State. 

PERIOD OF FRUITFULNESS. 

There seems to be quite prevalent a belief or impression that 
the period of profitable production of the Washington Navel 
orange ceases after the seventh or eighth year. 

*"It is not claimed that our trees are short lived, but that 
their period of fruitfulness is to be short, and that the budded 
varieties differ materially from the seedling in this regard. 
But has such a difference been shown to exist in their actual 
periods of fruitfulness? Let us make a comparison. In the 
first place the Navel and seedling are both upon the same root, 
and therefore start out in life upon the same footing. For the 
first seven or eight years the seedling tree draws upon its plot 
of ground for such elements of plant-food only as will produce 
growth of leaf, limb, and root, asking for no fruit-forming 
material, as it has made no fruit. It then begins to use spar- 
ingly of its reserve materials, and within the next seven or 
eight years it will so nearly have exhausted the fruit-forming 
elements in the natural soil that it no longer produces profit- 
able crops, they being small in quantity and inferior in quality. 
Now, in the case of the Navel tree, you have taken a bud from 
a precocious variety of tree, and by uniting it with a seedling 
root have produced the most ravenous feeder of the citrus 
family, and also the most perfect machine for making superb 
fruit yet known to the business. It is not content with the 
slow, plodding habit of the seedling tree, but even in its second 
year begins to dig up the necessary materials for constructing 
fruit, and it will continue to do so in an increased ratio until 
about the same length of time occupied in the process of the 
seedling, when it too will have used up so much of its available 

*C. E. Bemis, in essay read at Farmers' Institute, at Covina, November, 
1899. 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — FRUITFULNESS. 43 

material that it can no longer increase its output; the differ- 
ence, if any, in the time occupied being easily explained by 
the superior texture and greater amount of nutriment con- 
tained in the Navel over the seedling fruit." 

THE AGE OF CITRUS TREES* 

Apparent Deterioration in Old Navel Orchards — Due to 
Improper Management. 

The questions I here present are, then: Is there a lack of 
vitality in the tree as it grows old? If there appears to be, 
what is the cause, and can we remove it? 

I find that there is a radical difierence in the condition of 
the oldest groves. Some are marvelously beautiful and pro- 
ductive, and others are light of color and scant of fruit. In 
some fairh' good orchards there are sections in Avhich the trefis 
are unhealthy, and this to an extent to reduce the yield to an 
unsatisfactory figure. The fact that the good and bad orchards, 
and the large number which are neither very good nor very 
bad, are located under practically identical conditions of soil, 
climate, and irrigation facilities, is proof enough that the cause 
of unsatisfactory conditions of tree and product is not due to 
any constitutional weakness of the tree, but to differing methods 
of treatment. 

I am thoroughly convinced that the tree is above the average 
in vitality, and that there is no justification for the belief that 
it is to become nonproductive as it grows old. 

It is a fact which can not be denied that many of the oldest 
orchards are yielding light crops, and that their foliage lacks 
that dark rich green characteristic of the thoroughly healthy 
orange tree. But I am satisfied that the fault is not with the 
tree, but with the owner. It is true that the young bearing 
orchards average better crops than do ihe old ones. But it is 
also true that the very best trees, the richest foliaged and 
heaviest bearing, are the oldest in the valley. These facts 
seem to point clearly to causes outside the tree itself for the 

*Extract.s from report of E. W. Holmes, of Riverside, who, at the request 
of the Riverside Horticultural Club, made an investigation regarding the 
alleged tendency of the Washington Navel orange tree to fall off in product- 
iveness with the approach of age. In "Press and Horticulturist," January 
6, 1900. 



44 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

unsatisfactory condition of many orchards; and, having satis- 
fied myself that many of the oldest orchards are the best, I 
have thought it well to endeavor to discover why it is that 
orchards adjacent to those which are most healthy and prolific 
are sometimes either a burden to their owners, or, at best, 
return but very moderate dividends. 

It can not be doubted that to three or four causes is due the 
failure of many groves. I do not mean absolute failure in all 
cases, but failure as compared to the best. I do not think the 
average orchardist will admit his fault in the matter. I find 
a majority deny conditions in their groves which are apparent 
enough to an unprejudiced investigator. I am convinced that: 

First — We do not feed the trees sufficiently. The Navel 
bears every year, and sooner exhausts the soil of the essential 
elements than such trees as rest from time to time. 

Second — We do not stir the soil to a sufficient depth, nor do 
we take all the pains we should to pulverize it finely. In rich, 
red, clayey soil, most prized because it produces the highest 
colored and best keeping fruit, there is invariably a tendency 
to form a crust of somewhat impervious soil below the depth 
regularly reached by the plow and cultivator. This is hardly 
"hardpan," such as is found in some sections. It will allow 
the roots to penetrate, and softens into cultivable shape if 
irrigation is long continued. But it is sufficiently hard to pre- 
vent the penetration of ordinary irrigation, and to prevent the 
soil from receiving the full benefit of the soluble fertilizers 
applied. It prevents the aeration of the soil, without which 
the essential process of nitrification is impossible. In nine out 
of ten of the orchards examined I find evidence that its 
presence has rendered partially useless much of the fertilizer, 
water, and labor used. 

Third — The disposition is to economize by delaying the 
application of water in the hot season until the tree plainly 
manifests its need. This policy, at least in a soil like that of 
Riverside and Redlands, is a mistake. I admit that by the 
use of manures which lighten the soil it can be made to absorb 
and retain water and fertilizer, and that such treatment is a 
valuable aid where water is scant; but I find the best results 
obtained where no attention is paid to the theory of infrequent 
irrigation, and water is regularly supplied. 

A fact to which I wish to call your attention is that in every 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA — FRUITFULNESS. 45 

one of the healthy and productive old orchards these three 
points of treatment are faithfully attended to, while I find not 
one of the ordinary or inferior orchards in which either one or 
two, and sometimes all three, are disregarded. I do not mean 
that they are intentionally ignored in the latter class. The 
owner hasn't the means to properly manure his orchard. He 
follows the conventional method of cultivating, and would be 
surprised if one should intimate that his work was lacking in 
thoroughness. He runs water in abundance, and often enough, 
but the shallow stirring of strong soil prevents its proper pene- 
tration. It has been a surprise to myself to find that I have 
failed in thoroughness, and I am sure that if others shall exam- 
ine they will find that there is need of improvement. Old orange 
groves will not be profitable unless we use intelligent methods. 

Where unhealthy trees exist because of a shallow soil, or 
where the rise of surface water has made the locality unfit for 
citrus fruits, or where the frost too often does injury, what I 
have said does not appl3^ Such conditions it is impossible to 
overcome. 

No man can study the condition of our older orchards with- 
out having proof supplied of the truth of the scriptures to the 
effect that '"To him Avho hath shall be given." Men of wealth 
who dare to invest heavily in fertilizers every season, and 
whose orchards want neither for intelligent labor nor for irri- 
gation, are the ones whose dividends are assured and regular. 
Handicapped with a heavy mortgage, the intelligent and 
shrewd orchardist may be forced to try to extract profit from 
his grove with the least possible annual expenditure, and may 
make thorough cultivation and faithful attention serve fairly 
well with a scant supply of fertilizer. But he can not attain 
the results achieved by him who adds to these methods the 
ability to furnish the fertilizing elements needed. 

I have pointed out the fact that certain old orchards have 
maintained health and productiveness, while others, having 
equal if not superior natural conditions, have proved either 
only moderately profitable or a source of loss to their owners. 
Many of the less successful groves have not apparently been 
neglected, and, it may be, have failed to use only one of the 
three essentials to success. It is possible that the calling of 
the attention of their growers to the practices which have won 
most marked success may lead them to appreciate the need of 



46 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

improving their methods, instead of drifting along in the 
easier, conventional way which is common. Young orchards 
generally pay while the soil is virgin and its abuse has not 
begun to affect the product. It will be well if the conceit 
which has always characterized the residents of each young 
fruit settlement shall be eliminated before its orchardists dis- 
cover that to maintain the reputation of their horticultural 
youth there is need of constant and faithful labor, and a gen- 
erous feeding of the soil before its best elements shall have been 
extracted. Providence has given to each orchardist, in the 
natural fertility of his soil, a little capital with which to work. 
He can not draw upon it without loss, and permanent pros- 
perity depends upon maintaining it. It is because this is gone 
that we hear of the decadence of the older orange trees, and to 
nothing else. The pioneers have had some expensive expe- 
riences, and it will be well if the later comers shall benefit by 
them. 

General statements regarding my conclusions may have more 
force if I give brief reference to the methods of successful growers. 
There are few orchardists in Southern California who are better 
known for the quality of their fruit than W. H. Backus. Though 
he has never aimed to unduly force his trees, he has had uni- 
form success in securing regular crops of fine-textured fruit. 
His orchard is one of the very oldest, and his trees have the 
disadvantage of having been planted only a rod apart. The 
soil is heavy. If there were anything in the claim of the 
deterioration of the Navel tree it should find justification here. 
And yet the trees are generally fine in color, and always well 
loaded with fruit. What methods have maintained the uniform 
excellence of this orchard? Mr. Backus has always used fer- 
tilizers generously, always given from a ton to a ton and a half 
to the acre. He says he made the mistake of using a smaller 
quantity than usual last year, and applied it too late, and is 
satisfied he is a loser by so doing. He thinks it is a serious 
mistake to wait until the trees show need before giving water. 
To allow the soil to bake once is to make all subsequent irri- 
gation less eflfective. He has always cultivated deeply, and 
considers this one of the fundamental' causes of his success. 
Mr. Backus has never failed of good results with any of the 
high-grade manufactured fertilizers, and he will continue to 
use them. 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA FRUITFULNESS. 47 

Another old Navel orchard is that of Ernest Meacham. He 
has five acres of trees, twenty-two years of age, planted a rod 
apart. He has attained results so much superior to some of his 
neighbors that his methods are worth considering. Having con- 
siderable livestock, he uses his stable manure by making a dead 
furrow across the regular irrigating lands, into which he puts 
it while fresh, three to five feet to the tree, immediately cover- 
ing it with the plow. In the course of the year he gets over 
the whole place in this way. This sends the nitrogenous mat- 
ter deep with the rains and irrigating water, and the soil is 
made mellow by its presence. In the late winter he applies 
ten to twelve pounds of guano, with which is mixed three per 
cent of potash and five per cent of sulphate of iron. He irri- 
gates thoroughly every thirty days in summer, and his appli- 
ances of his own devising for deep furrowing and thorough 
cultivation close up to the trees, while his team walks in the 
center of the land, are worth examining. These trees are 
exceptionally fine in color, and the quantity and quality of the 
fruit are remarkable. There isn't a sick tree in the lot, except 
one or two attacked by gophers. For several years this five- 
acre orchard has yielded between three and four thousand 
boxes of oranges, running perhaps ninety per cent fancy. 
This orchard most effectually demonstrates the vigor and pro- 
ductiveness of the old Navel tree when properly cared for. 

Everybody knows the Barny orchard, the largest of the origi- 
nal Navel orchards. It has always had the best of care, and, if 
anything, has been over-fertilized at times; and yet, in spite of 
the harm the terminal branches got from the April frost of two 
years ago, is marvelously beautiful to-day, with its dark green 
foliage and heavy crop of splendid fruit. It has water regu- 
larly, and is always thoroughly cultivated. 

I might multiply such evidences of the effect of proper treat- 
ment, in every one of which the three points I have referred to 
are those in which they differ from the less successful. 

It is, however, proper to give a type of another class of orch- 
ards in which success has been attained where no special effort 
at ideal cultivation and irrigation has been attempted. Such a 
one is that of D. P. Chapman. It is an old orchard of ten acres 
and has yielded from four thousand to seven thousand boxes 
annually for many years. I can find no other cause for its 
superior and constant yield but the fact that its owner never 



48 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

loses a chance to apply any kind of manures, natural or arti- 
ficial, Avhich he believes good. Such applications, with average 
treatment as regards soil and water use, have proven a good 
investment. If there is a criticism due here, it is that excessive 
use of nitrogen may have caused rather more than the usual 
scab among the trees. 

Another experience, valuable as illustrating the effect of the 
best treatment upon a comparatively young Navel orchard 
that had suftiered from the March frost, is that of A. P. Johnson. 
In spite of the fact that a large proportion of the bearing wood 
had been removed, a heavy application of fertilizer, properly 
applied, brought not only a very profitable crop the follow- 
ing winter, but, with a later generous application, a crop the 
present season, which, for uniform excellence, it is hard to 
excel. Mr. Johnson's old seedlings, upon which he has put, 
perhaps, seventy-five cents' worth of fertilizer to the tree, appear 
to have twenty to twenty-five boxes of fruit each at the present 
time. 

But the transforming effect of heavy fertilizing is more 
conclusively shown in the old Kearn place, which, starved and 
neglected in past years, had a crop last season not worth the 
cost of picking, while to-day, as the result of expending ninety 
cents to the tree for fertilizer last year, there is a transforma- 
tion in appearance and a crop which will give a handsome 
dividend. I mention this not as directly bearing upon the 
main topic we are discussing, but as showing the efiect of 
generous expenditures in restoring the health of an orange 
grove. The cure for tree weakness and nonproduction is simply 
proper tree food in ample quantity, timely irrigation, and deep 
and thorough cultivation. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



49 



THE OEANGE. 



THE SWEET ORANGE. 

Citrus aurantium didces, Linn. 

The sweet orange belongs to the natural order Aurantiacx, 
and the origin of the different members of this citrus family 
is extremely doubtful, having been cultivated from a remote 
period of antiquity, but is supposed to belong originally to 





A. Compound uniioliate leaf of the orange (Ci<- 
riis nurnntium). 1. Point of union, marked by an 
articulation; 2. Petiole, winged on both sides; 
3. Lamina; 4. Flowering branch of Ci7?-»,s f;(V/n/Yi(fia; 
■"> and 6. The fruit; 7. Flower complete: 8. Pistil; 
;i. Transverse section of ovary. (After Haldane.) 



China and India, and was not taken to 

Europe until centuries after the Christian 

era. Its cultivation has been confined to 

the countries adjacent to the Mediterranean, 

for only there is the climate suitable for its 

best development. Needling trees under 

favorable conditions have lived for centuries. At the convent 

of St. Sabina, at Rome, there is a tree 32 feet high which is 

4c 



50 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



said to be over 600 years old; and another at Hampton Court, 
grown under glass, over 200 years old. Spain and Sicily also 
have trees of great age. At Versailles there is a seedling 
planted in 1421. At Nice there is a tree 50 feet high, with a 
trunk over 3 feet in diameter, which is said to produce 6,000 to 
7,000 oranges in a year. 

The flowers are white, the leaves lanceolate or oblong. The 
petiole is not so markedly winged as in the bitter-sour orange, 
but is always present to a greater or less degree. The .fruit is 

generally an oblate 
sphere, pyriform or 
elliptical, of a gold- 
en color when ripe, 
and full of delicate 
pulp and sweet, 
refreshing juice. 

SEEDLINGS. — Pri- 
mary root stout, taper- 
ing, twisted, furnished 
after a time with a few 
lateral rootlets, longi- 
tudinally ridged and 
furrowed, at least when 
<lry. 

Hypocotjjl suliterra- 
nean, short, stout, 
curved, longitudinally 
ridged, colorless, 2-3.5 
nun. long. 

Cotyledons two, oppo- 
site or fretjuently alter- 
nate, colorless, fleshy, 
not leaving the testa, 
but very often com- 
pressed and shapeless, 
owing to the presence 
of two, thi-ee, or four 
embrvos in the seed. 




Seedlinss of Citi 



rantiuiii JM/ces^yearliiig plants. 



Sttm woody, erect, terete (striate when dried and somewhat twisted), pale 
green, glabrous or minutely pubescent ; first internode 2.5-4 cm. long; sec- 
ond, and sometimes the third and fourth inideveloped, or the third 3 mm. 
and the fourth 2.25 mm. long. 

Leaves simple, cauline, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate, evergreen, shin- 
ing, coriaceous, thickly dotted with immersed glands, strongly odoriferous 
when bruised, glabrous. 

Nos. 1 and 2. Generally op]>osite by the nondevelopment of the internode, 
more or less obliquely obcordate and appearing deformed ; very shortly 
petiolate. 

Nos. 3 and 4 (in sj)eciiuen examined). Alternate, ellijitic, ol)tuse, obso- 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 51 

letely !<errate, minutely emargiuate. witli alternate, asc-ending latei-al nerves; 
petioles clianneled aljove, narrnwiy wingetl. articulated with the stem helnw 
and the leaf ahove. 

Ultimate leaves otjlong-ovate, aiuminate, emarginate, minutely and obso- 
letely serrate, pellueidly punctate, with a thin nuirginal line of larger glands ; 
lamina articulated with the winged petiole, which is ovate in outline, with a 
short, stout, not winged base.— Sir Johx Lubbock, " Contributions to Our 
Knowledge of Seedlings," Vol. I, 1892. 

ORANGE TYPES— VARIETIES. 

(a) Seedlings* that have lost their parental characteristics 
through degeneration; 

(/)) Modified Seedlings, types produced hy chance, through 
natural intermixing of pollen, with characteristics unlike their 
parent, remaining constant, but with tendency to revert to the 
mother type; 

(c) Hybrids. 

{a) SP:EDLIN(t types, produced by chance. 
Mayberry's Premier. — Originated at San Gabriel. 
Cooper's Seedling. — Originated at Santa Barbara. 
Kercheval's Queen. — Originated at Los Angeles. 
Baldwin's Favorite. — Originated at San Gabriel. 
NiCARAGUAN. — Originated at Los Angeles. 
Tahiti. — Originated at Los Angeles. 
I XL. — Originated at Los Angeles. 
Eureka. — Originated at Los Angeles. 
Acapulco. — Originated at Los Angeles. 

(ft) MODIFIED TYPES, produced by chance, the embryo in 
the seed having been influenced by natural cross-ijollina- 
tion and remaining constant. 

Wolfkill's Best. — Originated at Los Angeles; fruit some- 
what flattened and medium to large, deep orange red, fine 
grain and pulp; ripens early. 

KoNAH. — Originated at Los Angeles. Fruit large, rough and 
thick-skinned; tree very thorny; ripens early. 

JoppA. — Originated at San Gabriel. Fruit medium to large; 
oblong, and uniform. 

Wilson's Best (syn., Lake Vineyard). — Originated at San 
Gabriel. Fruit medium to large; tree handsome grower. 

(c) HYBRIDS. 



*The term "seedling" is applied to any type of orange reared indiscrimi- 
natelv from seed. 



52 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

Navel Type. 

Washington Navel. — This variety is the most widely known 
and is properly styled the *' king of oranges." The fruit has 
proved of such exceptional quality and is in such general favor 
that its production overtops all other varieties. 

The name ''Washington Navel" was applied to this variety 
in California, to distinguish it from the "Australian Navel," a 
shy bearer with a similar peculiar mark, and because it was 
received from Washington, having been imported from Brazil 
by the Department of Agriculture. It was for a time called 
"Bahia" (place of origin), also "Riverside Navel," denoting 
the locality where the first trees were planted, and which are 
the parents of all trees of this variety in the State. 

The first orange shipments consist of the Washington Navel, 

which constitute over one half 
of the output, but it is shipped 
later in the season, extending 
into June and July. 

Fruit large, highly colored, 
solid and heavy, skin smooth 
and of a very fine texture, very 
juicy, highly flavored, with 

First picture of the Navel orange on melting pulp, SeedlesS (except 

^^'^°^^- occasionally — evidently the re- 

sult of pollen influence). Tree semi-dwarf, good and prolific 
bearer, medium thorny, a rapid grower and early bearer. Foli- 
age deep green, heavy and compact, leaves large and promi- 
nently winged. Branches deep green and smooth, inclined to 
roundish. Stock sturdy, with well-balanced limbs. The 
blossoms are double (having a secondary blossom within), 
and rarely have any pollen. Ripens early. 

Most of the early publications of Brazil mention the Lavanja 
de omhigo — Navel orange. The first illustration of the Navel 
orange appears in a volume, "Table XVI — Historiae Naturalis 
de Arboribus et Fructibus, Libri Decem. Johannis Jonstoni, 
Medicine Doctoris. Francofurti o/m, MDCLXII" ("The Natu- 
ral History of Trees and Fruits, Ten Books. By John John- 
son, Doctor of Medicine. Frankfort on Main, 1662"), referred 
to as Aurantium foe.tiferuvi. The accompanying illustration, 
photographed from the original plate in the library of Prof. 
Edw. L. Greene, of the Catholic University of America, at 
Washington, D. C, was secured through the kindness of Wm. 
A. Taylor, Assistant U. S. Pomologist, to whom the writer is 




Eh 



T, 



;.fi 




54 



STATE BOARD OF HORTJCULTURK. 



indebted for assistance. Although no description of the Navel 
orange appears in the text, this is the earliest reference known. 
M. George Gallesio, Auditor of the State Council and Sub- 
Prefect of Savon a, in a treatise on the citrus family, wi'itten 
early in the last century, makes mention of a variety of orange, 
double flowered. The author describes the Aurantium fceti- 
feruvi as presenting a superfoetation, an imperfect development 
of many germs inclosed within another or united under the 
envelope or an exterior germ. Those descriptions undoubtedly 

refer to the Navel orange. 
Thus it would seem that the 
navel formation is of great 
antiquity. The navel mark 
shows in the fruit as early as 
it can be examined, which in 
its development the navel is 
itself a secondary orange, in 
some specimens having a dis- 
tinct skin surrounding it. 

History of the Introduction oj 
This King of Citrus Fruits. — 
*" During the Civil War a 
woman who had been sojourn- 
ing in Brazil told Mr. Saunders 
that she knew of an orange at 
Bahia, Brazil, that excelled 
any other variety she had ever 
tasted or heard of. He sent 
there and had twelve trees 
propagated by budding and 
sent to him, in 1870. They all grew, and some of them are 
yet bearing fruit in the orange house at Washington. None oi 
the original trees was sent out to the public, but all were there 
used as stock fi om which to propagate by budding. Many young 
trees were budded from them and sent to Florida and California. 
Early in 1873 Mrs. Tibbets was in Washington, just previous to 
going to her new home at Riverside, California. Mr. Saunders 
offered to give her some trees of this new and untried orange and 
she most gladly accepted two trees. She and her aged husband 
planted them beside their cottage, and when they bore fruit it was 

* Prof . H. E. Van Deman, in " Rural New Yorker,'' June, 1899. 




Mr. Wm. Saunders, of Washington, D. C, 
to whom the world is indebted for the in- 
troduction of the Washington Navel orange. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



55 



found to be equal to the most extravagant reports of its quality 
and size, and the trees were very prolific in that section. The 
trees sent to Florida produced equally good fruit, but they did 
not bear well. This is why many fruit-growers thought there 
was more than one variety in the lot of trees imported from 
Brazil; but the difference in fruitfulness came from climatic 
causes, as has been most thoroughly proved by many years of 
experience in all the orange-growing sections of the country. 
It has also been said that there was only one tree at the Tib- 
bets place, and that it was unlike the other trees bearing the 




LUTHER C. TIBBETS AND WIFE. 
The parents of the Washington Navel orange industry in California. 

same name. But this is a mistake, for I have gathered and 
eaten fruit from these two trees and had their history direct 
from Mr. and Mrs. Tibbets, also from Mr. Saunders. Besides, 
I have critically examined the trees of Bahia in bearing in 
many parts of Florida and California, and compared them and 
their fruit in many ways, and found them to be identical, 
except in variations caused by climate, soil, and culture. The 
orange is truly seedless and utterly devoid of pollen, and the 
pistils are also deformed in such a way as to render seed pro- 
duction from the pollen of other varieties an impossibility, 
except in a few very rare cases in which seeds have been found. 
It is this malformation of the pistils or embryonic ovaries that 



56 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



causes that peculiar umbilical mark, either large or small, 
which gives the name 'navel,' by which this orange is com- 
monly known." 

*" The first fruit brought to general notice was at a citrus fair 
in Riverside, in 1879, where it received prompt recognition. 
From that time forward its propagation was rapid, until to-day 
vast areas are devoted to its culture. The trees originally 
imported from Brazil still stand in the greenhouses at Wash- 
ington, but those that were sent out to the growers of the citrus- 
producing sections of the United States were small stocks budded 
directly from the imported ones. It is worthy of most careful 



•>t 






■^ 


__^_ 


^__-^|| 


:m 


, -^^^ 


f^S^ 


2 


m *^ ^Si 




-mi 


S^^ 


i 



Most remarkable orange " sports " on record. A " Navel " wiih a perfect orange outside 
its fruit bud; aud one with a perfect orange, skin and all, inside it. 

note that the valuable qualities which make the Navel the 
greatest of oranges developed in their entirety only upon the 
Pacific Coast. The peculiarity from which this orange derived 
its name is a navel seal, or trademark, of great importance 
to its grower — an unmistakable protuberance at the apex or 
blossom end of the fruit, not unlike the navel of the human 
body. In a seeming etfort to break forth from its confinement, 
the bud often takes the form (especially in late blooming) of a 
diminutive orange. This mark varies greatly in size from a 
dim outline to oftentimes a monstrosity, readily distinguished 
in the accompanying engra^^ings from nature. Besides these 
normal developments specimens are sometimes found with a 
section of the fruit in a raisisd or sunken panel, with pro- 

* Herman H. Monroe, in " Land of Sunshine," May, 1899. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



57 



nounced difference in coloring. While some are disposed to 
believe that through its golden-bronze skin shines the lighter 
blood of a remote ancestry, others in turn find an excuse for 
its sporting in the theory that adjacent trees bearing fruit of a 
different variety may by pollination stamp upon it the insignia 
of their species — for the Navel is more susceptible to change 
than any other type. From reports of the United States con- 
suls in the orange-growing countries of the entire world, it is 
clear that in no other countr}^ on the face of the globe is the 




Original Washington Navel orange trees, at the Tibbets homestead, 

Riverside, Gal. [Removed April 25, 1902, to the head of 

Magnolia Avenue.] 

culture of the orange so successful as in the Golden State, 
where the climatic conditions and soil are so well adapted to 
its perfection of character. There are two colossal old trees, 
'Los Migueletes,' in Mairena del Al^on of Seville, which are 
recorded to have borne each thirty-eight thousand oranges in a 
single season, and those in the garden of the Alcazar, at 
Seville, said to have been planted at the time of King Pedro I., 
and others whose hollow trunks still support luxuriant foliage, 
which might have afforded shade for Charles I., for they date 
back three hundred and forty years. While the original Cali- 



68 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 




Thomson's Improved Navel— reduced. 



fornia pair may not command the admiration that do the his- 
torical ones cited, they should merit the fostering care of a 
grateful people, for they revolutionized the orange industry in 

its infancy through- 
out California, and 
made possible great 
profits in the devel- 
opment of an orange 
which is unsurpass- 
ed in the world. 
To-day, these trees, 
whose progeny has 
amassed millions, 
stand apart from 
their fellows, re- 
ceiving meager at- 
tention, but still 
producing ' golden 
apples' in limited 
qua n title s — one 
which I was allow- 
ed to pluck showing 
a measurement of 
twelve inches in 
circumference and 
weighing a ' trifle 
over a pound." 

Thomson's Im- 
proved Navel. — 
Originated by A. C. 
Thomson, of 
D u a r t e . Fruit 
large and solid, 
juicy and sweet, of 
very fine texture. 
Rind very smooth, 
oil cells small. Tree is very prolific, and bears early. 

Australian Navel. — Fruit seedy, varying in size from large 
to small, and splits at the navel, which is usually large and 
prominent. Tree strong grower, but a very shy bearer. 




Cross-section of Thomson's Improved Navel- 
reduced. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



59 



River's Navel. — Fruit medium, ripens late. Tree large and 
productive. Grown extensively by A. S. Chapman, at San 
Gabriel, who considers it one of the best varieties to grow. 

Double Imperial Navel. — Imported from Florida; inferior. 

Whitney's Seedless. — Florida. 

Atwood's Seedless. — Florida. 

Ormand's Prize. — Florida. 

Sanford's. — Pink-tinted flesh; Florida. 

Navel Blood. — Florida. 

Brazilian Navel. 



St. Michael Type. 

Paper-Rind St. 
Michael. — Fruit 
small, round, very 
firm, and very juicy; 
pale, thin skin; grows 
uniformly in size. 
Ripens late and keeps 
well on the tree. Tree 
of a semi-dwarf habit, 
medium thorny, a 
good bearer. This is 
the thinnest-skinned 
orange grown, and is 
very popular. 

Small St. Michael. 
Fruit very small; has 
thick, coarse skin; in- 
ferior. 

Large St. Michael. 
A variety without pos- 
sessing the St. Michael 
characteristics. Fruit 
large and coarse; tree 
thorny. 

AzoREAN St. Mi- 
chael. — Fruit medi- 
um to large, solid, 
pulp fine and melting, 
medium thin rind, 




Cross-section of Paper Rind St. Michael— natural size. 



60 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



flattened, few seeds. Ripens early and keeps well on the tree. 
Tree is a rapid grower and a prolific bearer. 
St. Michael's Egg. — Florida. 





n 








^^H|Lv<i. 


ATJ^^ 






^^^ 






1 


i 


Wk' 






K 


ttlii^-- 


^ 




'm 


WK^'^'*''' 





Valencia Late. 

Valencia Late 
(California's favor- 
ite late orange). — 
Fruit medium size, 
oblong, tapering to- 
ward calyx. Few 
seeds, pulp very fine, 
skin smooth, flavor 
subacid. Ripens late. 
Tree thrifty grower 
and prolific bearer. 
This is the latest 
variety known in the 
K?tate, rarely becom- 
ing sweet before May 
or June, and will 
hang on the tree 
through the summer. 
It has often been kept on the trees until Christmas. 




Cross-sectiou of Valencia Late. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 61 

Hart's Tardive. — (See Valencia Late, which seems iden- 
tical.) 

White Orange. — Fruit large, round, light yellow, flesh white, 
like a lemon, very sweet, texture fine, ripens late. Tree a 
dwarf. 

Blood Type. 

Malta Blood. — This is a popular variety. The fruit has a 
red blush on the surface, which gives it a delightful appear- 
ance not possessed by any other fruit. Fruit medium size, 
oval, has a fine texture and flavor, and is sweeter and earlier 
than the Maltese Blood. The pulp is marked as if streaked 
and mottled with blood; has very few seeds. The tree is of a 
dwarf habit and has a peculiar character of growth, very 
readily distinguished. 

Maltese Blood. — Fruit oval in shape, medium in size, pulp 
marked a vinous red. Ripens later than the Malta Blood. 

Ruby. — Resembles the Malta Blood, and the pulp is marked 
a vinous red. The tree is a good grower and prolific bearer. 

Mediterranean Blood. — Florida. 

Pierce Blood. — Florida. 

Large Blood. — Inferior. 

Nicaraguan Blood. — Inferior. 

Standard. Varieties with No Distinctive Mark. 

Rio. — Fruit and tree resemble the Mediterranean Sweet (see 
page 63), but the fruit is much larger, and has a thick skin. 
Ripens late and uneven. 

HoMOSASSA. — Fruit deep orange red, flesh melting and juicy, 
seeds, thorny. Ripens early. 

Parson Brown. — Fruit medium, oblong, and slightly flattened 
at the stem end, smooth skin, juicy and sweet; is sweet from 
the time it commences to turn. Tree medium thorny, a fair 
grower and a good bearer. Ripens early. 

Asher's Best. — A strain of the Mediterranean Sweet, which 
it resembles in both growth and fruit. 

Majorca. — Fruit medium size, nearly round, smooth, juicy, 
and few seeds. 



62 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 




Jaffa— natural size. 



Jaffa. — Fruit medium size, heavy and juicy, thin skinned, 
also very smooth. A remarkably handsome grower and nearly 
thornless. 




Cross-section of Jaffa— natnral size. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



63 



Mediterranean Sweet. — Fruit inediiim size, pulp and skin 
of very fine texture, solid and with few seeds; ripens late. This 
variety seems to require special climatic conditions and soil for 




Mediterranean Sweet orange tree, showing haljit. productiveness, etc. 

its successful fruiting. At Colton the tree is a good grower and 
ranks with the semi-dwarfs. Tree thornless, and one of the 
most beautiful. 

Tangierine— Mandarin Type. 
Citnis avrantivm, var. Xohilis, Linn. 
Of Japanese and 
Chinese origin. 
The fruit is gen- 
erally small, deep 
red without and 
within, skin loose 
and easily detach- 
ed, containing 
sweet juice, quite 
depressed. Leaves 
of most varieties 
vary, but most are 
somewhat linear 
and unarmed. On 
account of the fo- 
liage being of a Tanglerine fruit and branch— reduced. 




64 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



weeping habit the best results have been attained by budding 
on large stocks, quite high from the ground, allowing the 
branches to form a large and compact head. By this method 
the trees become more fruitful and uniform in shape. This 
tree requires little or no outside pruning and grows very sym- 
metrical. 



r 



Satsuma (Unshiu 
and Oonshiu). — 
Japan. Fruit of me- 
dium size, flattened, 
rind easily detached, 
of exceedingly fine 
texture, sweet and 
nearly seedless. Tree 
dwarf and remarka- 
bly hardy, especially 
when worked on the 
Citrus trifoliata — 
the deciduous 
orange. 

King. — S i a m . 
Fruit large, very 
rough rind, segments 
cleave when fully 
ripe, very highly 
flavored. Tree a 
handsome grower, 
very thorny. 

Dancy Tangie- 
KiNE. — Fruit small, 
much flattened, pulp 

very sweet and fragrant, color deep red, nearly seedless. The 

foliage closely resembles that of the sweet orange. Tree thorny 

and an upright grower. 

Stevens. — .Japan. Bears two crops a year, maturing in 

summer and winter. Tree of dwarf, bushy growth; thornless. 

Fruit pale yellow; juice subacid, delicious. Grown by Mrs. 

L. C. Stevens, of Santa Barbara. 

KiNNELOA.- — Fruit large, depressed, flattened, few seeds, quite 

juicy. Skin very easily detached and fragrant. 'l,Tree good 

grower, very productive. 




uiiJarin tree. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE IV. 




Tangierlne—Dancy— natural size 



Mandarin— King— natural size. 



^^ 



Mandarin— ICinneloa — natural .size. 




Stevens— natural size. 



Willow-Leaf Mandarin— natural size. 



VARIETIES OF THE "CITRUS AURANTIUM NOBILIS." 
5c 65 



66 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



Broad-Leaf Mandarin. — Japan. Ornamental only; fruit of 
no commercial value. 

Other Varieties. — Bitter Loose Jacket, Cleopatra, Dr. Cogill's 
Tangierine, Paragon Tangierine, China Sweet, Mary Bremont, 
Narrow-Leaf Mandarin, Thorny Mandarin, Emperor Mandarin, 
China, Coolie, Canton, Willow-Leaf Tangierine, Broad-Leaf 
Tangierine. 




Seedling Tangierine tree in A. S. Chapman's orchard at San Gabriel, showing, habit of 

growth, etc. 

Miscellaneous Japanese Citrus Fruits. 

The following varieties of miscellaneous citrus fruits have 
been introduced from Japan, and after being thoroughly tested 
were found to lack the essential qualities required for their 
culture on a large scale, although many possess considerable 
merit: 

Natsu-Dai-Dai. — A species of pomelo; coarse. 

Dai-Dai. — Very thick rind; coarse. 

YuMA-BuKi-MiKAN. — Grceuish color; rind thick; coarse. 

Shirawa-Koji. — Small; very thick rind and many seeds. 

Beni-Koji. — Very highly colored; thin rind and few seeds. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE V. 





Satsuma— Unshiu Mikan— natural size. 




Broad-Leaf Mandarin— natural size. 



VARIETIES OF THE "CITRUS AURANTIUM NOBILIS " 



68 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



KiN-KuNENBO. — Thin rind and few seeds. 

luKo. — Small, with very thin rind and full of seeds. 

ToKO-IuDZU.^Very small; a species of Bergamot lemon. 

Jagatara-Mikan. — A species of pomelo; very coarse. 

Maru-Bushiokan. — A species of citron. 

To-MiKAN. — A rusty brown orange; very thick rind and full 
of seeds. 

Kinu-Gawa-Mikan. — Very large and bitter. 

Bushiu-Kan. — Fruit unsightly, resembles a bunch of fingers; 
said to possess medicinal qualities. 




Bushiu-Kan— The fingered citron of Japan. Used for medicinal purposes. 



To-Dai-Dai. — Rusty brown; very coarse and bitter. 
Beni-Mikan. — Very small; thin rind, with few seeds. 
Kawahi-Mikan. — A species of Mandarin, 
Kinokuni-Mikan. — A species of Tangierine. 
Koji.— Rusty brown; very thin rind; bitter and full of seeds. 
luDzu. — Very thick rind; coarse and bitter. 
Marumi-Kinkan. — The Kumquat. 
Kabusa. — Pulp fine, seeds few, rind thick, pulp white. 
Naruto-Mikan. — Rusty brown; inferior. 
Ama-Dai-Dai.— Rusty brown; medium thin rind, pulp 
white, few seeds, bitter. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



69 




Olive-Shaped Kumquat— natural size. 



Kumquat Type. 

Citrus aurantium, var. Japon- 
ica, Thunberg. 

Olive-Shaped. — Fruit very 
small, olive-shaped, rind thick, 
yellow, smooth, sweet-scented, 
very little pulp, contains many 
seeds. Tree dwarf (a bush), 
four to six feet; a very prolific 
bearer. The fruit is edible 
whole; the rind has a pleas- 
ant aroma. Valuable for pre- 
serves and marmalades. 




Round Kumquat— natural size. 

Round. — Smaller than the Olive-shaped; fruit round, some- 
what acid. 

KiNKAN. — Fruit'ver}' small; sweet juice. 



70 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



THE SOUR ORANGE. 

Citrus vulgaris, var. Bigaradia, Risso. 

From the species vulgaris all others are supposed to have 
sprung, which are sub-species proper. 

The fruit of the Bigaradia and its many decendants is of a 
red orange color, with a rugged skin, rough and porous. Pulp 
yellow, and the juice extremely bitter. Leaf large and petiole 




Sour Orange {Citrus vnlgam, var. Btgaradia). 

highly winged. Flower large and highly perfumed. There 
are many varieties of this species, and the fruit of some is used 
in making marmalade and preserves, and the flowers for the 
manufacture of perfumery. 

This species does not grow as high nor as robust as the sweet 
orange, but on account of its hardiness and exemption from 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 71 

disease much attention has been given to its culture for stocks. 
While the sweet orange requires good soil and high, dry eleva- 
tion, the sour orange seems best adapted to low, wet soils, such 
as it is grown in in Florida, known as "hammocks," and along 
the margins of swamps. But those kinds of land do not 
exist in our State, and while the sour orange stock is hardy 
beyond question and thrives in our dry soils under entirely 
different conditions, it has not superseded the sweet orange 
stock or Tahiti Seedling, as was predicted it would, and perhaps 
never will. Trees grown on sour stocks, of the same age, show 
a marked difference of growth in almost every section of the 
State. The trunks are not as large as those on sweet stocks, 
and show less expansion of root system. The influence of the 
stocks on the bud is also traceable. Those on sweet root show 
a darker foliage, with a tendency to improvement in the 
quality of the fruit. The trees become of extraordinarily large 
size, and the product twice or more as large. The suscepti- 
bility of the sweet stock to the gum disease is obviated by the 
care bestowed upon it, which is now practiced and thoroughly 
understood. 

Types, Sub-Species, or Varieties of C. Bigaradia. 

The following types, sub-species, or varieties of C. bigaradia 
are grown in Florida. Occasionally some are met with here, 
but rarely : 

Bitter Sweet. — Medium size, juicy, sweet, inner rind bitter. 
Tree indistinguishable from the Sour. Native wild orange of 
Florida. 

Bitter Sweet (Philip's). — An improved variety of the Bitter 
Sweet. 

Sour. — Native wild orange of Florida; fruit large, coarse; 
juice acid, inner rind bitter. 

Sour (Italian). — Tree thornless and vigorous. 

Willow-Leaf (Italian). — Resembles the Italian Sour. 

Variegated (Sour). — Very ornamental; leaves and fruit 
mottled with white. 

Variegated (Bitter Sweet). 

Tarsus Sour. 

Melangolo Sour. V 

Sour Sweet. 



72 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

THE BITTER ORANGE. 

Citrus aurantium, var. Bergamia, Risso. 

The flowers of the Bergamot orange are small, white, and 
highly scented. Leaves oblong, elongated, acute or obtuse, the 
under side pale. Petiole more or less winged. Fruit pale 
yellow, pyriform or depressed, the oil-vesicles concave, pulp 
acid, and the whole highly perfumed. The tree is of semi- 
dwarf habit, and very hardy. There are a great man}^ varieties 
of this species, some bearing large fruits, the majority of which 
are worthless, and some bearing small fruits, only valuable for 
the manufacture of orange and essential oils. The peel of the 
bitter orange is used in medicine as an aromatic tonic, and the 
fruit is also used in making marmalade and preserves. Many 
of these are grown in Europe for the essential oil they contain, 
from which is made a substance known as bergamot camphor. 
In this State varieties of this species have only been grown for 
ornament, to which purpose they are well suited. 

Varieties of C. Bergamia. 

Bergamot. — Fruit large, rough, flattened, very aromatic. 
Flowers large, double, and very fragrant. 

Bouquet. — Flowers double and very fragrant. Leaves large 
and glossy. Fruit bitter. 

Double-Flowered. — Large double flowers, very aromatic; 
highly prized for the bloom. 

Large Marmalade. — Grown in Florida; highly prized. 

Sweet Seville. — Grown in Florida. 

Philip's Bitter Sweet. 

MYRTLE-LEAF TYPE. 

Citrus aurantiuvi, var. Myrtijolia, Gallesio. 

Tree very ornamental, dwarf, foliage densely packed together, 
leaf small, like the myrtle. Flowers small, pure white, and 
very fragrant. Fruit bitter. 

Myrtle Leaf. — Yellow fruited. 

Myrtle Leaf. — Red fruited. 

Myrtle Leaf. — White fruited. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



73 



THE SHADDOCK. 

Citrus aurantium, var. Decuviana, Willd. 

SEEDLINGS. — Hypocotyl very short, subterranean. 

Cotyledons subterranean, and remaining in the seeil till they decay, oblong- 
elliptic, obtuse, i)lano-convex, Heshy, sessile, and Ixith directed to one side. 




Fruiting branch of Shaddocli (Citrus (ZecHmnna)— reduced. 



greenish-yellow above, yellowisli beneath, somewhat falcate, 13 mm. long 
and 6 mm. wide. 

Stem, soon becoming woody, covered with a short, very tine i>ubescence; 
first internode 5-5.5 cm. long; the one to three following ones su{)pressed, or 
from two to four of the leaves on tlie same level ; succeeding ones again 
elongated. 

Leaves as in C. aurantium. 



74 



STATE BOARD OK HOKTICULTrRE. 



First ptiir opposite, orbicular, eniarginate, subsessile, not articulated. 
Petiole crenate. 

Second pair often on the same level as the tirst two, so that there is a 
whorl of four. When distinct, oblong or elliptic, obtuse, otherw ise like the 
two preceding. 

Fifth leaf (where the first four are whorled) elliptic, cuneate at the base. 

Sixth leaf obovate-elliptic, more elongate and cuneate at the base, with a 
swelling of the midrib some distii^nce above the base, corresponding to 
articulation. 

Seventh leaf ovate, bluntly pointed, articulated with an oblauceolate 
winged petiole, obsoletely crenate. —Linn.eus. 




Modified type of " Citrus Decumana"— A hybrid. (Reduced one half.) 

Fruit mostly pyriform, very large, pale yellow, with rugged 
skin, very thick and bitter; pulp in some sorts white with 
green tint, in others dark green. Fruit contains many large 
seeds, and very little juice, which is bitter acid. The tree is a 
rapid grower and very ornamental, but the fruit is of very 
little value, except for decorative purposes. It is greatly 



THE OKANGE IN CALIFORNIA-VARIETIES. 



^0 



sought by the Chinese during their New Year celebrations to 
ornament their homes and joss-houses, and many thousands 
are annually imported by them from China for this purpose. 
The fruit is called by the Chinese yu shu and gon lack. The 
rind and flowers are said to furnish an essential oil of consider- 
able value, and the skin is used in the manufacture of bitters. 
The propagation of the shaddock is very simple. It comes 
"true" from seed, ] 

or mostly so; is 
budded on almost 
any kind of citrus 
stock, orange pre- 
ferred ; the tree 
requires less care 
than any tree of 
the citrus family. 

Varieties. 

China. — Fruit 
very large, pyri- 
form; tree large 
grower. 

Bi.ooD. — Fruit 
very large with 
pink flesh. 

Forbidden 
Fruit. — Fruit 
very large, pyri- 
form. 

Mammoth. — 
Fruit extraordi- 
narily large, pyri- 
form, pale yellow. 







5.# 



•.!i(> 



-^' 



Pi:>inelo tree in fruit. 



THE POMELO.* 

Citrus aurantium, var. Pomelanus, Willd. 

Leaves large, very dark green, somewhat lanceolated and 
notched at their edges. Leaf stalk markedly winged. Flowers 

*The name "grape fruit" has been applied by common consent to this 
fruit, from its habit of growing in clusters, but such name is wrong and 
misleadiiig. It should be known solely as Pomelo, whicli is poj'ular and 
botanicallv correct. 



76 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

white (like the orange), large and fleshy (like the citron), and 
arranged in large clusters. Fruit of most varieties extraordi- 
narily large, round or pyriform, with a smooth yellow skin. 
Tree a rapid grower and prolific bearer, with short and often 
flattened branches. 

Owing to the incomplete research and lack of knowledge of 
the species Pomelanus, a hybrid, botanists have confounded it 
with Decumana, and have joined the two under the latter' 
name, but it has no place there. That Pomelanus (pomelo) 
was confounded with Decumana (shaddock) was no doubt on 
account of its having sprung from the latter and on account of 
both species bearing fruits of extraordinary size; decumana 
(Latin for huge) has been indiscriminately applied to both. 

The chief characteristics of all these fruits, distinguishing 
them from the difierent varieties of the orange, are associated 
with their size and color. They are all, or nearly all, larger 
than the largest orange, and are uniformly of a pale yellow. 
In texture the rind may be smooth or even polished; it is sel- 
dom rough, nearly always firm, and not very thick. The pulp 
is pale yellow or greenish white, sometimes pink or crimson; 
the vesicles (juice bags) of the pulp are more distinct than in 
the orange; very juicy, somewhat sweetish, with a distinct but 
agreeable, bitter flavor. The pith surrounding the segments 
possesses more of the bitter than the pulp, but it is less agree- 
able, and on that account is never eaten. In shape these fruits 
vary a good deal. Some are quite globular, others somewhat 
flattened at the top and tapering below, forming a pear-shaped 
body. Even in the globular fruits the top is more or less 
flattened. There are none, we believe, pointed at both ends. 

The special alkaloid of most varieties of the pomelo contains 
a bitter principle, which, while its medicinal virtues are con- 
ceded, has not yet, I regret to say, been defined by chemical 
examination. Neither is it safe to consider it quinine, for 
there are scores of vegetable bitters which are not quinine. 
The presumption therefore is, that it is a unique bitter prin- 
ciple peculiar to this fruit. 

Observations made by William C. Fuller, of Colton, and 
myself show that large confluent and well-defined oil cells in 
the citrus indicate sweet fruit, and especially does this law of 
energy follow when applied to the pomelo. Considering the 
purpose for which the demand for this fruit comes, tendency 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 77 

to undue sweetness should be avoided and varieties producing 
fruit with a delicate bitter should be sought. 

Within the past five years a good deal of interest has been 
manifested in this State respecting the pomelo. 

For medicinal purposes it leads all the citrus fruits, and its 
value from this point of view is as yet unknown. Invalids 
find it just the thing to tone up their system; it is a sure pre- 
ventive of that languid feeling so prevalent in spring; when 
used in fevers it is fully as beneficial as quinine without the 
deleterious effect of that drug, and is one of the finest tonics in 
the world. Women find it exceedingly valuable. A German 
physician pronounces it a cure for incipient consumption and 
kindred lung troubles. It is a well-known fact that people with 
weak lungs wintering in Florida have derived permanent 
benefits from eating the fruit regularly. 

Varieties. 

A number of growers and shippers from different sections of 
the southern part of the State collected samples of pomelos 
from the numerous shipping points and on March 1 (1897) 
met in Los Angeles and tested them. In the opinion of those 
assembled the best shape was the flat round; and best color 
and texture were a lemon color and a peel similar to the St. 
Michael orange. The most desirable sizes wanted by the trade 
are those that pack 42, 56, 64, and 80 to the box. 

DuARTE Seedling. — A Florida seedling, grown at Duarte, 
met with much favor. The fruit was a fiat round, growing 
from 42 to 80 (per box) in size, with a skin the color of a 
lemon, and no thicker than that of a Navel orange. The fruit 
is heavy and a delightful " bitter sweet," so much enio3^ed in 
the East. It had quite a few seeds, but very little rag or 
waste. The peel and section linings are very bitter. 

CoLTON Terrace Seedling.* — Grown at Colton; was the 
next best variety tested. The fruit had a thicker rind and a 
more orange color and much more rag and waste; the flavor, 
however, was nearly the same. 

Prof. H. B. Heiges, late U. S. Pomologist, says of this seed- 
ling, in a letter to the Chamber of Commerce of Los Angeles: 
"The California seedling pomelo was much finer and thinner 

* Sample was given the committee thinking; the same was for immediate 
use and not for comparison. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE VI. 




COLTON TERRACE SEEDLING POMELO. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE VII. 




VARIETIES OF THE POMELO. 



80 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

in the skin than the Triumph, and was of superior quality; in 
fact, no pomelo that has been received by this Division sur- 
passed in quality the California seedling." 

Fruit medium to large, heavy, subacid and delicate bitter, 
full of seeds; skin smooth, Light lemon color, very small oil 
cells, turning slightly orange when mature. 

From an analysis made by Chemist George E. Colby, of the 
Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Califor- 
nia, I am able to compare the relative merits of this seedling 
as against the analysis of the Triumph, a variety which is 
now very popular, as follows: 

Colton Terrace 

Physical Analysis — Triumph. Seedling. 

Average weight, in grams 440. 430. 

Rind -.. 23.1% 30.7% 

Pulp, pressed 25.4% 29.5% 

Seeds.. 3.40%, 3.40% 

Juice... ...-. 1.75% 1.38% 

Analysis of Juice — 

Solid contents, by spindle ... 11-20% 10.00% 

Totalsugars ...1. 8.00% 6.80% 

Acid, citric 2.31% 2.00% 

Triumph. — This variety, in the opinion of those assembled, 
ranked next. This was considered a fine-looking fruit, full of 
juice, but lacking in the real pomelo taste of the first two 
.named. The texture, of both peel and fruit was pronounced 
very desirable. 

Commercial. — This variety attracted much attention for its 
large, desirable size, its fine color and shape, and also that it 
had a good lot of juice, but did not compare in flavor with the 
first three varieties named. 

AuRANTiUM. — A medium to small variety, with a sweet rind; 
irnported from Florida. It is said to be a cross between an 
orange and a pomelo, partakes greatly of the orange, and does 
not possess the eccentric bitter principle so much sought in 
this fruit. 

Thesca Blood. — From Florida; a large pear-shaped variety, 
with pink-colored pulp, described as being "a good grower and 
heavy cropper. Fruit medium size, pale yellow in color, with 
slightly bitter pulp." 

Blood (syn., Pink). — This variety is apparently very prolific, 
slight bitter principle of the species, agreeable acid; tree very 
vigorous, with striking foliage; an ornamental tree, as well as 
interesting fruit with its tinted texture; skin thicker than some. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE VIII. 




AuRANTiUM, OR OiiAMiE, P<)MEi.(i— Slightly Tcduced. 




Pernamhuco Pomelo— Reduced one half. 



VARIETIES OP THE POMELO. 



6c 



82 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



Duncan. — A new variety recently introduced into the State. 
Much larger than an orange and smaller than a shaddock; a 
delicious fruit, by many preferred to an orange, Skin smooth, 
pale yellow, subacid. The membrane dividing the pulp is 
bitter and must be removed before eating the pulp. 

Thursby. 

March Seedless. 

Leondardy. 

THE OTAHEITE ORANGE. 

Citrus aurantiuin, var. Pumilum, Gallesio. 

This dwarf species of the citrus is largely grown in Florida as 
a stock for budding purposes. It is used to dwarf varieties of 




Branch and fruit of Otflheite orange— re- 
duced one half. 



the sweet orange. The tree is a shrub, never attaining a greater 
height than six to eight feet. The fruit is very small; the 
flowers are of a reddish color — a pretty ornamental shrub. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



83 



DECIDUOUS ORANGE. 

Citrus aurantitim, var. Trifoliata, Linn. 

A hardy deciduous 
species from Japan. 
Early in the fall it 
sheds its leaves and 
becomes entirely dor- 
mant, in which con- 
dition it passes the 
winter. The tree is 
very dwarf, of a shrub- 
by habit, and suitable 
for hedges and dwarf- 
ing varieties of oranges 
and lemons. B'ruit 
orange yellow, spheri- 
cal, about one and one 
half inches in diame- 
ter. Leaves trifoliate, 
leaflets sessile, ellipti- 
cal, obtuse, on a wing- 
ed petiole. Branches robust, often more or less flattened; very 
thorny. 




Branch aud fruit of C. trifoliata— vednced one half. 



MISCELLANEOUS SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 

The following varieties of the various species have been im- 
ported from different parts of the globe, many of which have 
proved to be duplications of varieties under different names. 
Owing to change of location, climatic conditions, etc., they 
have not come up to expectations. Those marked with an 
asterisk (*) possess merit; all others proved failures, although 
it is doubtful if any are now grown in this State: 



Selecta* 


Catania. 


China 


Oval 


Candian* 


Lorretto 


Chio 


Early Spanish 


Paros 


Sabina 


Archipelago 


Parramatta 


Mitylene* 


Poor Man 


Tenedos 


Royal* 


Samoa 


Chinese Oval 


Scio 


Balearic, or Ma 


Parakila 


Imperial* 


Kau 


lorea* 



84 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



Accaway* 
Shanianty 
Tarsus (sweet) 
Red Juiced 
Round 
Havana 



Silver Leaf (orna- Belady* 

mental) Bisry 

Violet Flower (or- Vanigila 

namental) Doable Flowered 

Portugal Sicilian 



Orange of Nice 
Jamaican 
Conipaida (orna- 
mental) 
Lisbon 



Many varieties have been introduced into Florida and many- 
have also originated there. In late years many varieties have 
been introduced into California from that State. After fruiting, 
the majority of these also proved a further duplication of vari- 
eties under different names. Some of them are still grown, 
but only to a limited extent. The Botelka is extensively grown 
by A. Scott Chapman at San Gabriel. He considers it profit- 
able to grow, owing to its good shipping qualities. It is also 
grown in different portions of the northern part of the State. 
The following is a partial list; those marked with two aster- 
isks (**) being of Florida origin: 



Early Oblong** 

Egg** 

Botelka** 

Dulcissima 

Prata 

Exquisite 

Old Vina** 

Arcadia 

Prolific 

Star Calyx 

Acis 

Centennial** 

Dr. May's Best 

Nonpareil** 

Pernambuco 

Mediterranean 

(Sanford's) 
Parson's Navel** 
Italian Navel 



Double Imperial 
Navel 

Bostrom's Prize 
Navel** 

Richardson's Na- 
vel** 

China (Tangier- 
ine, willow leaf) 

Golden Variegat- 
ed (Mandarin) 



Cunningham** 

Tony** 

Pineapple** 

Spratt's Harmon 

Bell** 

Pierce's Blood** 

Round Sweet 

Blood** 
Armory's Blood** 
Sail's Blood** 



Markham's Best** Mediterranean 



Higley's Late** 
Wilder** 
Dixon** 
Krause** 
Pride of Malta 
Everbearing** 
Peerless 
Madame Vinous** 



Blood 

Thornless** 

Foundling** 

De Barry's Seed- 
ling** 

Dr. Stark's Best** 

Mellwood Seed- 
ling** 



Dann's Best** 

Osceola** 

Oce** 

Prater, or Silver** 

Beach's No. 5** 

Foster** 

Indian River 

Milikensis 

Marquis 

Sanford's Navel 

Orange Lake** 

Queen 

Queen of Halifax 

Sustain Navel 

Velvet Peel (orna- 
mental) 

Whitaker** 

Indian River 
Sweet** 



PROPAGATION OF THE OEAME. 

Planting the Seed. — The best time to plant orange seed is 
in the months of March and April, and even in May and June. 
Early planting is not recommended, because it does not give 
good results. When planted too early many seeds decay, wait- 
ing for spring, their time of germination. The seed-bed should 
be kept moist, but not too wet. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — PROPAGATION. 85 

Collecting the Seed. — There are various ways in vogue, but 
in the one most commonly used the fruit is piled in heaps or 
put into barrels to rot. When it has decayed sufficiently to 
break easily Avhen handled, it is crushed in a tub or barrel and 
the seeds are washed out. A coarse sieve is used; the soft sub- 
stance of the fruit passes through, leaving the seeds in the sieve. 
This operation is carried on in a place Avhere water can be used 
freely, as considerable is required to do the work properly. 

Keeping the Seed. — To insure best results, the seed of the 
orange should not be allowed to dry after being taken from 
the fruit. If not ready to plant then, they should be put in 
moist sand. In this way they can be kept until everything is 
prepared. 

How to Put the Seed in Sand.— Take a shallow box, say 
five inches deep and twenty or thirty inches square; fill it half 
full of moist sand; then put the seed on top, about two inches 
deep. On top of the seed place considerable sand and mix 
the sand and the seed together with the hands. This is done 
so that the sand will stick to the seeds and prevent them from 
adhering to each other. Then fill up the box with sand and 
let the seeds remain until they are to be planted. The boxes 
can be stacked one upon another. 

Taking the Seed Out of the Sand.— The seed-bed having 
been prepared, take the top box and dump its contents into a 
coarse sieve. This must be done Avith care, so as not to bruise 
the seed. Then shake the sieve; the sand will pass through, 
leaving the seed in the sieve. 

The Seed-Bed. —The seed-bed should l)e inclosed with 
boards, eighteen or twenty inches wide, set on edge, about four 
or six feet apart. The bottom should be fioored, so as to 
prevent the ingress of gophers and other rodents. Laths are 
nailed on top, leaving a space of one half inch between them, 
to protect the seed from being scratched up by birds. A cover- 
ing of thin muslin is put on top of the laths to prevent the 
young plants from being scorched by the sun. If the weather 
be cloudy, it is well that the covering be removed to allow the 
seed-bed to get warm. It is better to plant the seed broadcast, 
but not too thickly, as the plants will grow slender and not so 



86 STATE BOARD OF PIORTICULTURE. 

strong and thrifty as when sown sparingly. The seed should 
be covered with fine, rich soil, from one to two inches in depth. 
Boxes filled with rich soil are also used in which to grow seed- 
lings. They are set close to each other on the ground, watered 
and covered the same as the seed-bed. 

Transplanting. — In one year the plants will be large enough 
to be transplanted in nursery form. They are sorted, the very 
small and delicate ones planted by themselves, or transplanted 
in boxes and kept another year; being so small and delicate, 
they are generally scorched by the sun when planted in the 
open ground, and remain small in the nursery. 

Distance of Nursery Rows. — The rows should be far enough 
apart to admit a cultivator between them. Grave mistakes are 
often made in setting the plants less than four feet apart, as in 
cultivating after being budded many buds are knocked off by 
the horse or the traces rubbing against them. Preference is 
given to rows when set five or six feet apart. This will give 
ample room for cultivation; and also, in digging up trees, a 
small, narrow sled can be run in to haul them to the head of 
the rows without rubbing against the nursery stock. 

Planting close together in the rows tends to make feeble and 
slender trees. If it is not intended to "sack" or "ball" the 
trees when they are to be transplanted, then the plants can be 
set from eight to twelve inches apart, and they will make strong 
and thrifty stocks; but if it is intended to "sack" them, this is 
too close. They should be at least eighteen inches apart; this 
will give the digger enough space to take up trees between 
others. It also has the advantage of not cutting the roots 
too short, which is apt to be the case when the plants are close 
together. 

Trimming the Stock. — The plants should be trimmed but 
sparingly until at least one year after planting. They should 
be left to grow almost at will the first year, as they will with- 
stand the cold of winter better. When plants are trimmed too 
young they generally make slender and feeble stock. In the 
following spring, as early as possible, say in February, the 
plants are trimmed, leaving a clear stock. All cuts should be 
made close, so that they may soon heal over. The brush is 
then gathered and burned. As the ground becomes packed by 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA PROPAGATION. 87 

the trimmers it should be loosened by running a cultivator 
between the rows. 

Topping the Trees. — When a tree is taken from the nursery 
the foliage should be cut back; the branches should be so cut 
that in starting they will form a fine-shaped head. This is 
done because evaporation from the leaves is rapid. In many 
cases where the top shoots are left on, the circulation of the 
trees becomes dry and the bark will shrivel before the roots 
have assumed their natural functions. 

Balling System. — A narrow trench is made along the row 
and within six inches of the tree; the. taproot is cut about 
eighteen inches deep; then with a spade an oblong ball is cut, 
leaving in it the tree. The spade should be very sharp, or in 
cutting the roots the jar will break the ball. Pruning shears 
are used in cutting large roots. When trees are taken up with 
a solid ball of earth the leaves will scarcely wilt. 

Fuddling System. — Puddling is practiced where the soil is 
so loose that sacking is rendered impossible. Many prefer this 
system to any other, as it gives the trees larger and more roots; 
and where all due precautions are taken, puddling is the best 
system, besides saving considerable expense. 

A hole is made in the ground and filled half full of water, 
then soil is thrown in and worked with a hoe, which forms a 
puddle. The puddle should be thin enough so that when the 
roots of the trees are put into it, the mud will stick to them, at 
the same time wetting every part thoroughly. The trees are 
carefully taken up, the soil shaken from the roots, and they are 
immediately dipped into the mud or puddle. The}' are then 
placed on wet straw in a wagon. A covering is placed over the 
wagon to prevent the sun from drying the roots, as the roots 
should not be exposed to the sun, even if only for a few min- 
utes. The wagon is then driven to the field where the holes 
have been dug. The driver hands the trees, one at a time, to 
the planter, who holds them in position while his men fill the 
hole with dirt, first throwing in the moistest. The planter 
presses the soil very lightly, and goes to the next one. The 
tree having been set, a basin is made around it and a couple 
of buckets of water poured into the basin; this will settle the 
soil and keep the tree fresh until water can be run down the 
rows in furrows. 



88 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

Transplanting the Trees from the Nursery to the 
Orchard.— This important work often determines the future 
growth and fruitage of the orchard. Its performance in all its 
details should be conducted in a manner to give as little shock 
to the growth of the tree as possible. Mr. L. C. Waite, of 
Riverside, has had great success in transplanting trees in their 
natural state; that is, removing the tree without balling, 
leaving the roots free from soil. He attaches great importance 
to two conditions: first, selecting the proper time for removal; 
and second, the manner of handling. The time for removing 
the tree is when it has made a previous growth and has 
hardened that growth and balanced it by a later root growth. 
In this condition it is ready to put out a new branch growth. 
Before this appears the fine roots are cut on one side of the 
tree by the use of a sharp spade. At the same time the tap- 
root is cut at the proper depth below the surface. The excava- 
tion is then filled with earth, and the tree allowed to remain 
for several days until the rootlets and the taproot have formed 
a crown of growtli. By leaving the rootlets of a considerable 
portion of the tree undisturbed by the first handling this growth 
is rapid. When the growth is sufficiently developed the tree 
can then be removed from the nursery to the orchard by the 
second handling. This is to cut the remaining roots, being 
careful to leave unbroken the roots cut at the previous hand- 
ling. When this ti-ee is placed in orchard form the earlier cut 
roots are ready to start new growth immediately. The shock 
to the tree by its last necessary mutilation is hardly felt. Every 
care must be taken in carrying the tree from the nursery to the 
orchard to keep the tender and sensitive rootlets from drying. 

*"If orange trees are properly handled from the time they 
are dug in the nursery until they are planted in orchard form, 
there should be no loss. We have found in our experience in 
planting, that if this plan is properly followed we do not lose 
any trees, but if orange tree roots are exposed to sunshine or 
wind, for a short time only, the planter will lose a large per- 
centage of his trees; besides, those which grow will have such a 
sickly growth that he would be better off" if they had died with 
the others. We know that it is possible to pack trees so that 

*B.F. Dixon, in essay before Escondido Farmers' Institute, November, 
1896. 



" THE OKANGE IN CALIFORNIA — PROPAGATION. 89 

they may be shipped long distances and, when planted, nearly 
all live, but from observations of the experiences of various 
planters we have concluded that the only safe plan is to buy 
your trees from the nearest nursery and superintend the dig- 
ging of them yourself. After your trees are planted in orchard 
form they should be watered and thoroughly cultivated every 
thirty days during the dry season. In the rainy season 
cultivate enough to keep down the weeds." 

*"J. H. Reed, whose systematic methods and habit of care- 
ful observation peculiarly fit him for successful experimental 
work, has demonstrated to the members of this club, and to 
the satisfaction of various other careful observers, the value of 
the following methods in transplanting orange and lemon 
trees: 

" First — In taking up the trees the roots should be protected 
by a ball of earth; 

^'Second — That, to the satisfaction of various careful observers 
the most essential factor in tree growth, should be preserved 
as far as possible; 

'' Third — Where it is practicable, the tree should be trans- 
ferred to its new home immediately after the taproot is cut, 
and loose earth carefully filled in around it; 

"FourtJi — Let water in furrows follow the planters and fill 
the holes, thoroughly settling fine earth around the balls or 
roots. 

"By carefully observing these points, if the nursery is near 
by, every leaf may be saved, and the tree will resume the work 
of growth almost immediately. Examination in a day or 
two after planting will show a large number of fibrous roots 
reaching out from the ball into the new soil around it. A 
small amount of well-rotted manure placed near the roots, but 
not immediately touching the ball, will assist in giving a 
vigorous growth. 

"The evidence from actual observation and experience is 
conclusive that trees thus treated will make a growth the first 
year which can not be approximated if the trees are taken up 
with bare roots. Indeed, if the leaves wilt and mostly drop, 
tlie tree will seldom do more the first year than reclothe itself, 
and will be a year later in coming into bearing. 

*Fi-oin report of committee, by J. M. Edmison, to Riverside Horticultural 
Club, February, 1899. 



90 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 




"It is very important the first season after transplanting 
trees to run water frequently, at least so as to insure soft and 
moist earth about the roots at all times. And it is better to 
run water in furrows through the entire open space between 
the rows. Experiments have shown that the roots reach out 
enormously, even the first year, if favorable conditions are 
provided." 

Extending the Roots. — A common practice in planting 
trees with loose roots, of placing the tree in the hole, filling the 
hole with soil and water, and then tramping, 
should be avoided. As the roots are covered 
with thick mud they will stick together, and 
if the tree grows it will not do as well as when 
the roots are extended with care. This is very 
simple. The hole is half filled with earth, 
which being loose admits the taproot of the 
fc tree by slight pressure of the hand; then the 
J lateral roots are spread and the soil is lightly 
pressed. Heavy tramping is not necessary, as 
'^^"''piamiS!'^^*^'" the water settles the dirt and keeps the roots 
in place. As soon as the water in the basin 
has disappeared, the basin is covered with loose soil; this will 
prevent evaporation, and keep the tree from leaning over. 
Trees planted with these precautions make the best growth 
and become the most thrifty. 

Shading Newly Set Plants. — Plants set out during summer 

or during a period of sunny 
weather often wilt and many 
perish, unless duly protected. 
The accompanying illustra- 
tion shows a simple method of 
protecting freshly set plants. 
These shades are made of any 
size desired, from old paste- 
board boxes, which^are easily 
obtained at drygoods stores, 
etc. Squares are cut from the 

Plants protected by shades. ^^^^ bottom, and sidcS. They 

are nailed to a peg made of any kind of material, in the man- 
ner shown. These shades can be put down close to the plant, 
and when taken up after a few days can be kept for future use. 




THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — BUDDING. 91 

BUDDING. 

There are various systems of budding citrus trees. In 
Florida and Louisiana the most popular method is the reverse 
of the one universally practiced in this State. 

Time to Bud.— The best time to bud citrus trees is in March 
and April, as soon as the trees begin to put forth leaves and the 
sap flows freely. Everything should be prepared; no time should 
be lost, as buds inserted early in the season start with vigor 
and by fall have a large and thrifty top. The buds should be 
looked over at least ten days after they are inserted, and all 
those which show signs of not having "taken" should be re- 
budded in order to give them an early start, and that they may 
grow more evenly with those first budded. 

Budding done in June and July is styled "summer budding." 
It is not considered as good as early spring budding, because 
the buds do not start evenly; and as the greater portion of them 
start late their growth is so tender by the time winter sets in 
that, if they pass through it, they become prematurely hardened 
by the cold weather, which sometimes causes the trees to become 
stunted. 

Fall budding is generally performed during September and 
October, and sometimes in favored localities as late as 
November. After the strings have been removed the buds are 
left to lie dormant through the Avinter, to be started in the 
spring. 

Methods Illustrated. — The selection of scions is very impor- 
tant. Only plump and healthy buds should be chosen; dov- 



Fi«. 1. Thornless orange buds. 

mant or blind and immature buds should be avoided. Fig. 1 
shows an orange stick prepared for budding. In this the leaves 
have been cut off' the leaf stem at the proper distance from the 




Fig. 2. Thorny lemon buds. 

bud. Fig. 2 shows a thorny lemon bud, also with the leaves 
removed, and ready for use. The stocks are previously pre- 



92 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



pared for budding by the removal of all growth to about eight 
or ten inches from the ground, or at the height they are to be 
budded, so as not to interfere with the men. The lemon should 
be budded at such a height that its union with the stock will 
be above the line of irrigation and moisture arising therefrom. 
This guards the lemon against disease. 

The first operation consists in making a vertical incision in 
the bark, as shown in Fig. 3. Note the position in which the 
knife is held. It is not necessary to press 
too hard, but simply cut through the bark. 
The transverse incision is then made at 
thetopof the ver- 
I tical incision, as 




Fig. 



Fig. 4. 



Fig. 5. 



shown in Fig. 4, and by a slight twist of the hand from left to 
right the bark becomes opened sufficiently to admit the point 
of the bud to enter into the incision (see Fig. 5). Now comes 
the cutting of the bud, which is shown in Fig. 6. Note the 
position of the hands and the manner of holding 'the knife. 
The point of the bud is held downward and the buds are cut 
from the back. In this way the buds are cut smooth and do 
not crack in cutting, as is the case when cut from above. The 
bud is then inserted by holding it between the fingers and press- 
ing it downward into position, as shown in Fig. 7. It is then 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — BUDDING. 



93 



tied with soft blidding twine (although other materials, such as 
cloth, etc., are greatly preferred by some), as shown in Fig. 8, 
which shows the opera- 
tion complete. Figs. 7 
and 8 show the treat- 
ment of the stock after 
the bud has "taken," 
and not at the time of 
budding. In order to 
start the buds it is best 
to cut back the stocks as 
shown in the figures, 
leaving a portion of the 
foliage until the buds 
have made a good start. 
This prevents a check of 
the flow of sap, which 
generally is the case 




Fig. 6. 




Fi(i. 7. Fig. 8. 

when all the leaves are removed with the top, causing the 




94 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

incision to open and the bud to dry. This brush is removed 
later at the point shown in Fig. 7, at a. When the 
buds start they are very delicate and require to be 
protected by being tied to the stock, either with soft 
twine or cloth, as shown in Fig. 9. When the buds 
have become strong the remaining portion of the 
stock is sawed off at the point shown in Fig. 9 at o. 
The cut is then waxed over, or given one or more 
coats of rubber paint, to protect it from atmospheric 
Fig X~ action, that the cut may heal over without defects. 

Starting and Training the Buds. — Nursery trees swell very 
fast in the spring, and three weeks is long enough for the 
strings to remain on them; but the tops should not be cut off 
then. The strings should be removed, and the nursery irri- 
gated and cultivated. This will force new growth, and the tops 
should then be cut back from four to eight inches above the 
bud. After the bud has grown about six inches or more it is 
tied to the stock. When the bud has become stocky and able 
to support itself, what remains of the top is then cut away. 
The cut should be made smooth and waxed over or painted with 
rubber paint. This helps the wound in healing over and pro- 
tects the stock from the action of the atmosphere. Buds left to 
lie dormant through the winter are '* started " in the spring, 
just as soon as the trees begin to show signs of growth. Great 
care should be used in the cutting of the top, that it be done at 
the proper time, and that the top be not cut so near the bud as 
to endanger it. It is advisable always to leave a little foliage 
on the stock, to avoid too great a shock by the removal of the 
entire top and its functions, which in many cases causes the 
death of the bud and tl^e dwarfing of the stock. 

When the stocks put forth in the spring the buds generally 
start also. The suckers, being very tender, are removed by 
hand (thumb-pruning),, breaking at the touch. Cutting them 
with a sharp knife has the advantage that no others will grow 
where so cut, and the cut being made clean will give the tree 
a»smooth body, and as the tree grows very little suckering will 
be required. When the suckers become strong and are removed 
by rubbing with the hand, the trunks generally become rough 
and suckering becomes much greater. 

As the buds continue to grow, they are loosely tied with 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — BUDDING. 



95 



soft twine or rope either to the remaining portion of the stock 
or to laths driven alongside. By this practice the trees will 
grow straight and symmetrical. 

Growing Budded Trees in the Nursery Without Staking.— 

The buds are allowed to grow until they show signs of drooping. 
They are then pinched at the top. The growth is arrested; 
the stock becomes firm and erect. The bud starts several new 
growths. One of these growths, generally the center, is allowed 
to make an upward growth and the rival growths removed. 
As this growth advances and, like the first, begins to droop, 
it is again pinched, when it again assumes an upright position 
and starts its multiple growths. From these, as before, is 
selected a growth to further advance the height of the tree. 
When the tree has arrived at its proper height for the crown, 
allow all the growths from the last pinching to remain and the 
tree to form its desired head. Trees grown in this manner are 
stronger than those that have had the support of stakes. 

WORKING-OVER LARGE ORANGE TREES. 



Large orange trees 
are somewhat diffi- 
cult to bud, owing to 
the extreme thick- 
ness of the bark and 
the inactivity of flow 
of sap at the space 
where the buds are 
generally inserted. 
Neither does the 
bark "slip" as easily 
as on younger 
stocks. Three meth- 
ods of working-over 
large trees are prac- 
ticed in the southern 
citrus counties. One 
is to bud into the 
large limbs near the 
crotch; the second is 




Orange tree budded over, showing the buds start- 
ing, and trunk whitewashed for protection. 



96 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 




to cut the tree back in the spring and to bud into the young 
shoots; and the third is to bud high into the limbs, either into 
the old wood or on the new shoots as they put forth after the 
trees are topped. 

Unless the buds are inserted reasonably early the entire tops 
are not cut back until the spring following. It is best to cut 
back a portion of the foliage of the limbs to induce the buds to 
start without giving the trees too severe a shock, and to allow the 

buds to grow at will with the rest 
of the foliage through the winter. 
— r S ^^S", 1 /Vw^JlK' From two to five of the large side 

f^ ^S^JtaH^^I^^^^'i limbs are left to grow, as a pro- 
tection to the buds from frost, 
and to induce the flow of sap to 
the buds. 

* "I believe the lack of success 
in budding old trees arose fre- 
quently from the fact that it was 
deferred until too late in the 
spring, when the sap was in the 
top of the trees, passing by the 
bud in its haste to get higher up, 
and the best success has come 
from buds inserted as the sap got 
to be active at the point of inser- 
tion." 

Budding Large Trees in the 
Fall. — At a meeting of the Riv- 
erside Horticultural Club, Mr. 
Bryan, a noted horticulturist, 

branches, which are budded ; Ihe body j j • i.* xi, i j 

of tree being protected with burlap, recommended inserting the bud 

from below, and pushing it up 
instead of the usual way of pushing it down, thereby insur- 
ing better protection from damage by rain. Waxed cloth, 
he said, was the best for tying. In regard to the treatment of 
the tree when the buds are fully set, he favored leaving a 
portion of the old wood and foliage to bear fruit for a time as 
a protection from the fierce rays of the sun in July and August. 
The heroic treatment of cutting the tree right back, which 



Orange tree cut back to force it 
to throw out shoots from the main 



* J. E. Cutter, before Riverside Horticultural Club, June, 1896. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — BUDDING. 



97 



might rightly be called " beheading system," he could not 
indorse. It was found that a much better way was to girdle 
the limbs just above the new buds, to be done with a knife, 
slanting away from the bud. In old trees several buds can be 
inserted on large limbs, thus giving greater assurance of 
success. 

Many budders remove from the limb, above the bud, a ring 
of bark, about an inch wide, which induces the bud to start. The 
bud is left to grow at will until the following spring, when the 
branches are finally removed, and the buds which have had a 
season's start are made to assume the functions of the top. 




Large seedling orauge trees changed over by budding in the branches. 

Protecting the Trunks of Large Trees. — As soon as pos- 
sible after the removal of the tops the ends of all limbs cut are 
waxed over. The trunks are then treated with a heavy coat of 
whitewash, or wrapped with sacks to prevent them from being 
scorched by the hot sun. Water is applied, and everything 
possible done to cause the tree and buds to start without being 
injured. But these precautions are not as necessary where the 
gradual process is practiced. 

Budding Large Trees in the Branches. — The rules laid 

down for budding large trees in the main branches close to the 

trunk apply with equal force to budding large trees in the 

branches higher up, and as shown in the accompanving illus- 

7c 



98 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

tration. The main limbs are cleared of all brush long before 
the time of budding. They are budded in the spring or in the 
fall. If budded in the fall the buds are allowed to lie dormant 
through the winter and started in the spring. The buds are 
inserted in the limbs, and when they have " taken" the tops 
are gradually removed, leaving the side limbs to grow for 
awhile to prevent the flowing sap from relaxing, which keeps 
the buds growing until they assume the functions of the top. 
These side limbs are then removed, and the trunks and limbs 
are given a thick coating of whitewash to prevent sunburn, etc. 

Beheading System. — This system is successfully practiced 
by several experienced budders of Riverside. 0. D. Wilhite, a 
gentleman of long experience, treats his trees before budding by 
removing all limbs (below the line of buds) that are not needed 
in the process of budding. He further treats the remaining 
limbs by removing the small branches near the line of buds, 
to induce a flow of sap at points where the buds are to be 
inserted. By this double removal he concentrates the flow of 
sap over a limited part of the tree and also at the special line 
of bud insertion. This service is done in the early spring. 
When the tree responds by increased growth, as it soon will, 
the sap is circulating in vigor and the buds are inserted. The 
treatment of the buds is the same as for nursery budding. 
Immediately after insertion they are tightly covered with 
waxed cloth. The coverings are allowed to remain about 
three weeks, or until such time as the buds are well established. 
They are then removed, and where the buds have not taken, 
new buds are inserted. Wherever a sufficient number of buds 
have taken, the top is entirely removed and the wounds 
covered with heated wax. In processing the tree for protection 
from injury by the sun a heavy coat of whitewash is applied 
before the removal of the limbs. This coating is carried above 
the point of cutting and over the waxed cloth. This insures 
the whole surface to be covered with the lime except a band 
where the cloth rests. When the cloth is removed the clear 
strip beneath can easily be seen in future observations of the 
buds. The first treatment of the tree is to let all new sprouts 
grow. These will appear over the entire tree surface, and will 
keep the sap in motion and the roots in action. The first 
handling is to pinch the fast growing buds to strengthen their 
trunks, and to remove a few of the sprouts which have grown 




02 

o< 

H I 

a o 
X 2 
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O S 



a 



w 



O •- 

oi o 

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^ o 

5 5 

CO -< 

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s?? ^^ 

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-33 S 

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1 



100 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

near them and threaten to smother them. As the buds grow 
the remaining sprouts are from time to time removed, being 
careful, early in their growth, to keep a sufficient sprout growth 
to maintain a rapid flow of sap. The top of the tree should 
now be free from sprouts and occupied pnly by the buds. The 
bud growth must be often pinched, to prevent a long, straggling, 
weak growth. As the crown of bud growth increases, all sprouts 
are removed from the trunk. Large trees treated in this 
manner should appear with a solid bud growth, as in the illus- 
tration (Plate IX, page 99). 

In some portions of the State the buds are 
troubled by the leaf-eating beetle Aramigus ful- 
leri, which climbs the trees and feeds on the ten- 
der leaves and tip ends of the buds. To keep the 
beetles from ascending the trees, bands of cotton- 
batting are placed on the trunks of the trees below 

FullGr's I^ o s 6 

Beetle — natural tli6 buds. Thesc bands are removed from time 

sizeandeularged'to time. 




PLANTING. 

Preparation of the Soil. — The land should be thoroughly 
worked through the winter and prepared to be planted in the 
spring, when it becomes warmer. All weeds and stubble should 
be plowed-under; these will decompose and serve as a fertilizer 
to the orchard. The thorough working of the soil liberates 
crude gases and changes the nutritive priiiciples to a form more 
readily assimilated by the tree. 

* " The question is often propounded to us how to prepare 
the land before planting the orange tree. Our advice to all 
contemplating planting is to first have a thorough survey of the 
land to be planted; then thoroughly grade same, so that water 
can be successfully carried to every tree. Here is where many 
make a fatal mistake; they undertake to grade the land by 
the 'eye,' and find after they have planted their grove that it is 
impossible to properly water all trees in the grove; then their 
lifelong trouble begins. So we would say most emphatically, 
always have your land well graded. When this is properly 

*B. F. Dixon, in essay before Escondido Farmers' Institute, Nov., 1896. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — PLANTING. 101 

done, plow the land at least twelve inches deep. Let the land 
lie until it has been thoroughly settled by rains or by irriga- 
tion, then plow again, if possible some deeper than the first 
plowing. Thoroughly pulverize the soil by harrowing. Go to 
the nursery and see that your trees are dug with good roots, 
and tops well cut back and all leaves removed from the trees 
before they are lifted from nursery rows; have roots immedi- 
ately puddled, then packed so as to retain all moisture and 
exclude sunshine and wind'. As fast as the trees are planted 
in orchard form, each tree should receive at least twenty-five 
gallons of water to thoroughly settle the soil. As soon as the 
soil is in good condition cultivate thoroughly," 

A great mistake is often made b\' careless planters in digging 
small holes, just large enough to crowd the roots into. Into 
these the trees are forced, the roots being twisted out of shape, 
with no regard to their proper position, and as a result the trees 
make a stunted and unhealthy growth. The holes should be 
both deep and broad. It is best to dig the hole deeper than 
needed; then fill up the bottom with a cone of surface soil, and 
in the apex of this cone a hole is made with a shovel-handle 
to receive the taproot. The laterals are then carefully spread 
out as nearly as possible in the position occupied in the 
nursery, and the hole filled up. The tree should be planted a 
little deeper than it originally grew, and when it is set should 
be pulled up with a gentle shaking motion to its proper height. 
This will settle the soil about the small roots. A bucket of 
water is now applied, which will still further settle the soil. 
As soon as the water has disappeared a little fresh soil is put 
over the basin, to prevent evaporation and to keep the tree 
from leaning. Trees planted with these precautions make the 
best growth and become the thriftiest. 

Time of Planting. — The orange, being an evergreen, can be 
planted at any time in the year when the conditions are favor- 
able, and this is determined by the condition of the tree and 
the season. The orange tree makes several growths during 
the season, varying in number and season with different 
varieties and different seasons. But there are periods when 
all orange trees are dormant, and others when nearly all are 
active. In transplanting, the trees should be taken at their 
dormant stage, as the shock of removal will not then be so 



102 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

severe and the tree will more quickly recover. These dormant 
periods usually occur about four times in the year: from the 
middle of March to the middle of April, in June, in September, 
and from the middle of November to the middle of December. 
The warmer season is the best for planting. Trees transplanted 
in the winter when the ground is cold will remain until spring 
without growing. It is therefore better to transplant when the 
ground is warm. The nearer an orange tree is to starting new 
growth the greater its strength and root power. This is the 
best time for transplanting— after they have made their first 
growth and before starting the second time in the spring. 

Trees designed for transplanting should be pruned a week or 
ten days before the}' are removed from the nursery. This 
enables them to recover from the shock of pruning before being 
subjected to the shock of removal. 

In the selection of trees it will always be found most profit- 
able to get the best, even though the first cost may be a little 
more. Scrubby, neglected, ill-grown trees are dear as a gift, 
and will never repay the care required in their culture. If the 
trees for the orchard are to be purchased they should be pro- 
cured from some well-known and reliable nurseryman, who 
will guarantee them true to name. Only clean, healthy, well- 
grown trees should be accepted. 

Setting Out the Orchfird.^In laying off the orchard it is 
desirable to have it symmetrical and to economize the land. 
A little thought and care displayed at the commencement will 
save much annoyance in after years, and it is no greater task 
to have the orchard neat in appearance and symmetrical in 
outline than to have it in a haphazard condition. There are 
three objects to be considered in laying out the orchard: sym- 
metry of appearance, economy of space, and facility for future 
care. Of course the first thing is to get the trees in straight 
rows, at equal distances apart, and ever\' one thinks he can 
accomplish this. But there are various methods of disposing 
of the straight row, and these methods all have their advocates, 
and each one its advantages. The principal forms are the 
square, the quincunx, and the hexagonal or septuple. The 
methods most common in use are the square and the quincunx 
systems. The most generally adopted is the square S3^stem, as 
the orchard can be changed to quincunx after being planted, 
even after a number of years of growth. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — PLANTING. 



103 



PLANTING SYSTEMS 

In order that the most 
approved phinting sys- 
tems may he better under- 
stood, they are illustrated 
to show how the orchard 
is 'first laid out, and how 
the trees look after several 
years of growth. 

The Square System. 

This is the most approved 
method. The orchard is 
laid ofT in lines crossing 
each other, with equal in- 
tervals of space, and a tree 
planted at each crossing of 
the lines. By tlie square 
method, at twenty feet 
apart, one hundred and 
eight trees are planted to 
the acre. The preferable 



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Quincunx System. 



The Square System. 

distances for planting are 
twenty feet for dwarf varie- 
ties, twenty-four feet for 
Navels and Mediterranean 
Sweets, and thirty feet for 
all seedling types. 

Quincunx System. — In 

tins system the orchard is 
laid off in the same manner 
as for square planting, ex- 
cept that the number of 
rows are doubled, and a 
tree planted in the center 
of every s q u a r e. This 
method is chiefly used in 
planting with the idea of 
removing the center. trees 
(which are generall}' dwarf) 
when those designed to be 
permanent shall have at- 



104 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



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Hexagonal, or Septuple, System 

trees are planted to an acre. 

Triangular, or Alter- 
nate, System. — In laying 
out an orchard by this sys- 
tem, the lines are run form- 
ing a square, as in the 
square system; a line is 
then run diagonally across, 
and a tree planted alter- 
nately, forming a triangle. 
The advantage in this sys- 
tem is that the trees are 
given more space, and can 
be planted closer together 
without crowding. 

The following table will 
show the number of trees 
to the acre by the square, 
quincunx, and hexagonal 
or septuple systems: 



tained a considerable size; 
the orchard then assumes 
the square plan. At twenty 
feet apart, one hundred and 
ninety-nine trees are plant- 
ed to an acre by this method. 

Hexagonal, or Septu- 
ple, System. — In this sys- 
tem the trees are equilateral 
(equally distant from each 
other) and more completely 
fill the space than any other 
system can. Six trees form 
a hexagon and inclose a 
seventh. The lines in the 
figure indicate the method 
of laying out the orchard. 
By the hexagonal system, 
at twenty feet apart, one 
hundred and twenty-six 



Lr. 



\- 



h 



::U. 



:l<.. 



H-.. 



;U.,i. ..:x- 



^ ^ ^ 



4_ '4^ 4= ^ 4^ 



4^ 



<L. 



4 



Triangular, or Alternate, System. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — SOILS. 



105 



Distance apart. 


Square. 


Hexagonal 
or Septuple. 


Quincunx. 


10 feet 


436 

303 

222 

170 

134 

108 

90 

76 

48 


500 
347 
255 
195 
154 
126 
103 
86 
56 


831 


12 feet 


571 


14 feet 


415 


16 feet 


313 


18 feet..--.. 


247 


20 feet 

22 feet 


199 
173 


24 feet 

30 feet 


137 
83 







Note. — In giving the distances of trees of the quincunx, the fifth or central 
tree is not taken into account. 

For any distances not given in the above data, calculate the 
number of trees to the acre by the square system, and add 
fifteen per cent. This will give the number if planted septuple. 



SOILS. 

An old saying among orange-growers, and in which there is 
much truth, is that "the orange tree must have its feet dry"; 
in other words, what is true of the requirements of all fruit 
trees, is especially so of the orange, and the soil upon which it 
is planted must be well drained. It should never be planted 
on heav}^ low ground, or on low, damp ground, where water 
can be reached within a few feet of the surface, and never on 
black adobe soil. A rich, porous soil is absolutely necessary to 
give the tree a vigorous growth. A deep alluvium intermixed 
with decomposed granite or limestone, with a porous subsoil, 
offers the best conditions in soil. A hardpan soil is to be 
avoided. At Redlands, in San Bernardino County, the soil is, 
as its name indicates, a deep red, cornposed largely of disinte- 
grated granite, with a large percentage of oxide of iron. The 
oranges grown there are of a deeper color than those produced 
in most other sections. At Riverside the soil is largely of the 
same character, and much of it, approaching the hills, a sharp 
granitic grit. The same general characteristics of soil prevail 
over the greater part of the orange section of Southern Califor- 
nia, the land varying as to the admixture of sand, some being 
more and some less of a sandy nature. 

*"The orange is not overchoice as to whether or,not the soil 
is granite, sandy loam, or red soil. Either of these kinds of 

* B. F. Dixon, in essay before Farnierss' Institute, Escondido, 1896. 



106 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

soil stands watering thoroughly and can be kept in good con- 
dition without an extra amount of culture. The ' adobe ' land 
has probably more strength of richness than either of the other 
soils named, but we should prefer it to be some other fellow 
who would successfully grow orange groves on 'adobe.'" 

The best citrus fruits are those produced on the. higher 
lands, which are naturally warm and well drained, and the 
best orange lands in our State are those having the higher 
altitude. 

A southern exposure is usually the best for an orange 
orchard, and it is better if sheltered from strong prevailing 
winds. Where the winds are very strong, it is customary to 
plant windbreaks on the windward side of each five or ten 
acres, for protection. These windbreaks usually consist of 
alternate eucalyptus and pepper trees, planted close together, 
usually ten or twelve feet apart. The pepper is a dense, low- 
growing tree, while the eucalyptus runs up, and the combina- 
tion makes a tall, solid wall capable of offering great resistance 
to the wind. Both are very rapid growing trees, and in a short 
time give complete protection to the orchard. The Monterey 
cypress is also commonly used for windbreaks, for which pur- 
pose the trees are planted from six to eight feet apart. 



IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation and cultivation are closely associated. It has 
come to be accepted as a truism that citrus fruits must be 
grown on irrigated land. The method and frequency of irriga- 
tion and the quantity of water to be applied were subjects of 
discussion for a long time, and the orange-growers formed 
opposing schools of irrigo.tors and cultivators — the former 
advocating a plentiful and frequent application of water, and 
the latter little if any irrigation but frequent cultivation. As 
is usual in such cases the mean was reached, and the practice 
to-day is thorough cultivation with enough irrigation. AVhen 
the young trees are first set out they must have enough water 
to insure their growth, for the tender and lacerated roots, with- 
out a firm foothold in the soil, can not withstand a long dry 
season; but after the first year the trees will grow with little 
if any irrigation, if well cultivated, although in most cases 
they are watered from two to seven times in the season. When 



108 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



the orchard comes into bearing, however, the trees must be 
copious^ly watered, or the fruit will be small. 

Of the methods of irrigation, the simplest, best, and most 
generally used, is the furrow system, in which several furrows 




iKiiiGATiNG— The Old Way. 

The furrows were made with the plow, and water run through in large streams, 

thereby cutting up the land and washing away the available plant-food. 

are plowed between the rows of trees, the first one about three 
feet distant from the trunks, and down these the water is allowed 
to flow gradually until the ground is thoroughly saturated. 




The Basin System of Irrigation. 
The orchard is laid out in square basins, ready to run water into them. 

Irrigation by the basin method is performed by hollowing out, 
around each tree, a basin with a diameter equal to the spread of 
the branches; into this the water is run, and when filled it is 
conducted to the next, and so on until all the basins have been 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — CULTIVATION. 109 

filled. These are sometimes filled two or three times, until the 
soil will absorb no more water. By this method care must be 
taken to prevent the water coming in contact with the trunks 
of the trees, or they will become scalded and gum disease will 
result. A cone of earth is usually banked up around each tree to 
prevent this, but it must be broken and leveled off' after each 
application of water; if not, bad results follow, such as the 
breaking out of gum, etc. 



CULTIVATION. 

Much of the success of the orange orchard depends upon 
cultivation. If this be carelessly done or entirely neglected 
the best results from the trees are not to be expected. Culti- 
vation is imperatively needed by the orange grove, from the 
fact that the orange does best upon irrigated lands, and irriga- 
tion and cultivation must go hand in hand. If water is 
applied to the orchard and it is left without cultivation the 
soil bakes hard, cracks, the moisture escapes, and the trees 
suffer. It is the rule, and one established by experience, to 
cultivate after each irrigation, just as soon as the ground is 
sufficiently dry to permit a horse to travel over it, usually in 
two or three days after the application of water. The soil 
must be kept mellow and free from weeds at all times. Many 
of the leading orange-growers plow in the fall before the 
winter rains, turning the furrows toward the trees, and harrow- 
ing the land after. This leaves the trees on a ridge with the 
dead furrow in the middle of the rows and serves to drain the 
surplus water from the trees. During the winter season the 
ground is naturally cold, and allowing the tree to stand in 
water is very detrimental to it. In the spring a second plow- 
ing from the trees to the middle fills up the dead furrow and 
leaves the ground smooth for the summer. 

The ground should be cultivated close to the trees, which 
can easily be effected by the use of a short whiffletree. Care 
must be taken, however, not to damage or wound the trees, and 
it is a wise precaution to wrap the ends of the singletree with 
cloth — a barley sack or something similar— to keep it from 
barking the trees in case of contact. A careful driver and a 
steady horse should do the work, and the danger of damage to 
the trees will be reduced to a minimum. 



110 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

In regard to the implements to be used, the orchardist must 
exercise his best judgment and consider the nature of the soil to 
be worked. There are a large number of good cultivators on the 
market, some adapted to heavy, others to light, and others to 
gravelly soil. The orchardist should ascertain those best suited 
to the requirements of his particular work, and secure them. 

CULTIVATION AND IRRIGATION.* 

The orange tree is a native of tropical forests, where it 
obtains warm soil and abundant moisture within easy reach. 
Its successful culture in the countries like California, which 
lack summer rains and moisture-laden atmosphere, is neces- 
parily to some degree artificial and a notable triumph of modern 
horticulture. In order to achieve the highest results, it becomes 
more and more essential that the grower shall keep the soil in 
the most perfect condition, shall apply all needed water and 
plant-food in sufhcient but not in excessive amounts, and shall 
pay especial attention to keeping the feeding roots as low as 
practicable and to preventing the formation of what is called 
"hardpan," but is only the well-known "plow-sole," aggra- 
vated by shallow irrigation. 

"Hardpan," some growers say, appears now where it was 
never before known. The fibrous roots of orange trees run 
along its surface, and thus are subject to every vicissitude. It 
often happens that what orchardists call " hardpan" is only 
the firm layer of soil caused by uniform cultivation, or plow- 
ing, whether deep or shallow. The depth to which soil is 
stirred should vary from 3^ear to year; eight inches, twelve 
inches, ten inches, fourteen inches, and then eight inches again, 
would put an end to much of the present outcry against 
" hardpan." Cultivator teeth should also be kept sharp, and 
should be " set down" to various depths so as to prevent the 
formation of " plow-sole" of any description, and to assist in 
breaking up that which former neglect has caused. 

Very few orange groves have been planted upon true " hard- 
pan," and if so planted have seldom succeeded. Only a few 
trees, such as our native oaks, are capable of thrusting roots 
through the iron-like layer of natural subsoil that is properly 
termed " hardpan." When found to exist, it should be deemed 
sufficient to debar citrus culture, unless so thin that, b}' boring 

* J. W. Mills, in University of California Bulletin No. 138. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — CULTIVATION. Ill 

or blasting, the root-system can be established in good soil 
below the "hardpan," or when it is so constituted that when 
kept irrigated the roots will penetrate it. 

An instance of the latter occurred at Riverside, where Mr. 
Reed planted a few trees on a terrace bordering on an arroyo, 
and found what was reported as true " hardpan" near the 
surface. The trees received " an abundance of water over the 
whole area for a year," and it was then found that the roots 
had penetrated it to a considerable distance. 

The term " irrigation hardpan" is quite generally used in 
the orange-growing district to describe the condition of some 
small areas in orchards where irrigation and subsequent cul- 
ture have been careless, or where sufficient attention' has not 
been paid to the difference of treatment required by lighter 
and heavier soils. 

Of course very sandy soils can be handled sooner after irri- 
gation than can heavier soils, and when a sandy piece of land 
containing areas of heavy soil is cultivated as soon after 
irrigation as the sandiest part will permit, trouble may be 
expected with the so-called " irrigation hardpan," by the 
puddling of the subsoil, partly directly by the plow, partly by 
the soaking-in of clay-water. 

It is usual for orchardists to put in a subsoil plow to help 
in breaking up the heavy spots of what is called " irrigation 
hardpan." But this difficulty can easily be overcome without 
using a subsoil plow, as was shown by the experience of 
Mr. W. J. Cox, of Glendora, Los Angeles County, who found 
that " irrigation hardpan" was forming in a part of his orange 
grove. He irrigated a few trees that were within reach of the 
domestic water-supply, and followed this up at the proper time 
with thorough cultivation. After each irrigation he cultivated 
a little deeper. As a result of deep irrigation and cultivation, 
the soil took in water as readily as ever and the trees regained 
their vigorous appearance. He simply used a chisel-tooth 
cultivator and plenty of w%ater. 

A somewhat different case was that of Mrs. McKenzie, of 
Riverside, whose orange grove failed to be profitable, though 
apparently well irrigated. This orchard had been cultivated 
to the same depth until a hard, clay "plow-sole" had been 
formed. The stratum of hard subsoil was several inches thick 
and contained a number of large surface roots. She wrote to 
the California Experiment Station, sending samples of soil for 



112 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

examination. It was found that the plow-sole prevented the 
irrigation water from reaching the deeper roots, and she was 
advised to plow the entire orchard, roots and all, as deep as 
the plow would go. This was done, much to the alarm of 
many growers, and great numbers of orange roots of all sizes 
were turned to the surface. Following further advice, she 
irrigated and cultivated the ground deeply, and the following 
season she harvested the largest crop ever taken from this 
grove. 

The Glendora grove, to which allusion has been made, had 
had deep cultivation from the beginning, and the roots were 
mainly below the so-called hardpan. The McKenzie grove 
had many roots in the hard "plow-sole," so that the only 
remedy was to destroy these useless roots and force the growth 
of new and deeper ones, at the same time giving the irrigation 
water a chance to penetrate. This rather drastic root- pruning 
was necessary, and if the Glendora grove had been cultivated 
to a uniform depth a few more seasons, deeper plowing and the 
destruction of the surface roots would have become inevitable 
there also. The breaking-up of all hard layers of soil caused by 
improper cultivation or careless use of water is of the first 
importance to the health and profit of an orchard. 

After Mrs. McKenzie's experiment at Riverside, previously 
mentioned, subsoilers of different forms were used, and the 
idea soon became common among ^growers that the deeper 
a plow could be run, the better would be the results that would 
follow. The injurious results of such practice can not be 
estimated without careful study of the root- systems of orange 
trees on various stocks and soils. A number of bearing citrus 
groves were so much injured by the reckless use of subsoil 
plows that the leaves of the trees actually wilted down imme- 
diately after the operation. In these cases, the sharp-cutting 
plow was run close to and on all sides of the trees. When 
trees over ten years of age, which have been subjected to uni- 
form shallow plowing and irrigation, are submitted to such 
treatment, they probably lose at one blow not less than seventy- 
five per cent of their active roots. The shock is such that it 
would take several years of careful treatment to restore the 
trees. 

It is almost always more economical to use a subsoiler or 
plow where " irrigation hardpan" has been formed than it is 
to use the large amount of water necessary to soften it; but 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — CULTIVATION. 113 

according to the best practice the deepening of cultivation 
should be gradual, and the implement should never run deeper 
than fifteen inches. One must remember that the really 
serious loss in sudden deep cultivation comes from the destruc- 
tion of thousands of fibrous roots that grow from the hundreds 
of laterals branching from the large main roots. 

If a plow is run to a depth of one foot, in three furrows, 
between the rows, and water percolates slowly for a long time 
through these furrows, no need can arise for a subsoiler. 
" Irrigation hardpan'' within reach of the plow simply shows, 
as has been said, that too shallow and too uniform cultivation 
has been practiced. In that case the entire surface should be 
thoroughly broken up, and irrigation in deep furrows after 
this will restore the proper conditions. 

Experience also shows that when the water is slowly run in 
deep furrows for a long time and the greater part of the surface 
is kept dry and is deeply cultivated, better results are obtained 
than when the basin or block method, or even the shallow-furrow 
plan, is used, even though they are followed by deep cultiva- 
tion. When the water is applied below the first foot of soil, 
and the soil above is kept comparatively dry, there is nothing 
to attract the roots to the surface; and when the water is thus 
applied, a team can be driven along the dry strips of land 
between the furrows, and with a harrow or other appliance the 
dry soil can be dragged into the wet furrows, to lessen the 
evaporation, immediately after the irrigation water is turned 
off. By any other system, it is absolutely necessary to wait at 
least twelve hours, and sometimes much longer, before a team 
can be driven over the ground. Then, too, when a soil irri- 
gated by these more wasteful methods has been cultivated, it is 
still moist near the top, and is soon filled with a mass of new 
roots so close to the surface that they must be destroyed. 

Water applied to the soil sinks and spreads. Some of it is 
being taken up by the still dry soil underneath and at the 
sides long after the last drop is visible. Some of it, too, is 
being drawn back to the surface, and thence evaporated into 
the warm air. Irrigation after sundown has some distinct 
advantages, if the water can be handled. Sub-irrigation upon 
soils adapted to its use is the ideal system of applying water, 
and greatly lessens waste. Orange roots will not enter a pipe- 
line unless it is full of water all the time. If the pipe is on a 
8c 



114 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

grade and open at bottom and top so that air passes through it, 
there will never be trouble from orange roots. Valves, once 
thought necessary, are not now used. The high cost of the 
present sub-irrigation systems places them beyond the reach 
of most orange-growers. 

SUBSOIL PLOW * 

Can the necessity for the use of a subsoil plow be avoided by 
guarding against the formation of hardpan while orchards are 
young? I am quite of the opinion that it may. But my expe- 
rience has been with orchards under ten years old, and I have 
learned that we are frequently obliged to revise opinions very 
confidently held, as our actual experience extends under new 
conditions, and this opinion may be quite wrong. If the hard 
layer is occasioned by repeated drying-out after irrigation, a 
portion of that stratum should be thoroughly broken up once 
or twice a year before becoming hard, while the balance of it, 
I think, can be kept from hardening by careful irrigation. This 
opinion is based on a good many years' experience in all soils, 
from sandy loam to stiff adobe, without any of this trouble- 
some layer; yet you will allow me to refer to this experience in 
illustrating — not in any dogmatic spirit, for every year more 
and more I find that different men will accomplish the same 
desired results best, by quite different means. Once a year we 
thoroughly break up the surface with a walking plow, as deep as 
we can without permanent injury to the root-system, say from 
six to nine inches. In our earlier planted orchard, where we 
did not commence with especially deep plowing, we have trouble 
with the roots even at six inches. In our later .plantings, on 
deep plowing, repeated each season, we can keep a depth of 
seven to nine inches easily. With this annual plowing we 
have no trouble in getting the water into the ground during 
the irrigating season. We aim to make the irrigation most 
thorough every time. As aids to this, I want to mention three 
things that we have found of great importance : 

jTiyst — We make our irrigating furrows as nearly the depth 
of the annual plowing as possible, thus putting the water 
nearest where needed, greatly reducing the surface saturation 
where so much water is wasted, and facilitating the early 
covering of the furrows after irrigation. 

*Essay by J. H. Reed, of Riverside, read at tlae Highgrove and Pasadena 
Farmers' Institute, January, 1900. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — CULTIVATION. 



115 



Second — Any portion of the orchard where there is any 
special occasion we cross-furrow before making main furrows. 
This done, with a little hard work the short pieces of the cross- 
furrows are easily filled and kept full. (This is of special 
advantage among large trees where the spaces between the 
furrows, between the trees, are necessarily wide.) 

Third — We run water three days in place of two; total 
amount of water the same. I think this practice may be 
adopted to great advantage much more generally than it 
has been. We find that the third day leaves more water in 




The subsoil plow, drawn by eight mules, iu the Windermere orchards, La Mirada. 

the ground than either of the others. By this method of irri- 
gation I feel quite satisfied that the root strata could have 
been kept thoroughly wet in spite of the hard layer, in any of 
the young orchards where I have seen the subsoil plow used. 
In older orchards where this layer had been hardening for 
years, the implement may prove of great service. Of course, 
even in young orchards, the desired results can not be secured 
by the most careful irrigation, except the water when once in 
the ground is conserved by proper cultivation. 

Again, I would like to refer to our own experiences. Instead 
of waiting for the irrigating furrows to become dry and then 
breaking them up thoroughly, bringing much of the saturated 
earth to the surface, as we used to do, as soon as possible — 
often within twenty-four hours — we cover the furrows instead 



116 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

of breaking them up. We do this with a single twelve-inch 
upright plank, dragged lengthwise with the furrows. We 
attach the plank to the shanks of an old two-horse walking 
furrower. This fills the furrows from their shoulders and leaves 
a light coat of pulverized earth on the rest of the surface. 
The object is to stop as soon as possible the evaporation of 
moisture from the saturated bottoms of the furrows. Others 
doubtless have, or will know, better methods of doing this. 
For cultivating, for several years we used the Planet Junior, 
with the widest shovels, for the purpose of moving the hard earth 
at the bottom, which is more easily done with wide than with 
narrow shovels. But the objection to bringing so much of the 
damp earth to the surface had so impressed itself upon me, 
that this season I determined to try the Killfeler cultivator, 
with its large nvimber of shovel-pointed teeth, which thor- 
oughly stirs all the ground without exposing the wet earth. 
There are serious objections to this implement, but I must 
confess to being greatly interested in the results from it. 
Using it thoroughly once after each irrigation, when the 
ground is in best condition, after the furrows are covered, then 
keeping the surface well loosened with a fine-tooth harrow, I 
have been able, so far as I can determine, to hold the 
moisture better than I have ever succeeded in doing before, 
and I find no signs of any permanent hard layers forming 
to retard irrigation. 



PRUNING. 

For years a strong contest was waged between the advocates 
of high pruning and those who favored low pruning, and many 
arguments were urged by the champions of each system in 
behalf of their favorite method. Victory finally perched upon 
the banner of the low-pruners, and the greater part of the more 
recent orange orchards have been trained low, experience hav- 
ing demonstrated that in our peculiar climate and in the dry 
soils in which our citrus fruits attain their best condition, low 
pruning offers great advantages over the rival system. 

In pruning orange trees, especially when allowed to grow for 
several years without it, considerable work and skill are required 
in removing the surplus inside growth and limbs without 
destroying the natural symmetry of the tree. The sun should 
not be allowed to strike the inside wood and foliage, as it is 



118 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



sure to scorch the hark and cause the fine brush to die; a dis- 
eased tree is apt to result. The advice, so often given, "that 
the tree be opened so as to allow plenty of air and sun heat to 
enter," does not hold good with the orange. Whenever the 
foliage that protects the trunk and main branches is removed, 
the inside growth is left exposed to the hot rays of the sun. 
Trees with one side of the trunk sunburned, and dead bark, 
resulting from the removal of the brush that protected it, are 
not uncommon throughout the State. 

Low-trained trees protect their trunks and inner growth by 
the shade of their limbs and foliage, and the ground under- 
neath is prevented from drying out. 




Orange orchard pruned high. 

* " Experience and careful observation have fully satisfied 
the members of this club that the formation of low heads is 
the true method for the Washington Navel and other varieties 
of budded oranges. The shears should be used sparingly; in 
fact, scarcely used at all in young orchards, at least for six or 
eight years. The young growth should be guided with the 
definite object of developing a close and systematic head. 
J. H. Reed, to whom I am much indebted, in writing this paper, 
for definite statements in regard to his experimental work, 
says: 'As to pruning, I have demonstrated, to my own satis- 
faction at least, that need of pruning the orange can be 

♦From report of J. M. Edmison to Riverside Horticultural Club, February, 
1899. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 119 

almost entirely avoided by suitable clipping during the early 
and rapid stages of growth, while the lemon needs constant 
and often heavy cutting from the first.' It is clearly a great 
mistake to cut out branches and to thin the top, as we sometimes 
hear, to let the sunlight in. Indeed, to keep the untempered 
heat of the sun out from the tender young fruit when setting, 
and to give shelter from the desiccating hot northers which 
sometimes cause the destruction of almost the entire crop of a 
young orchard, should be constantly kept in view, and not a 
leaf should be removed that can help in the work. Take a 
Washington Navel tree with dense foliage of a rich, dark green, 
and you will seldom fail to have a bountiful crop of choice 
fruit." 

The illustration on the opposite page shows an orchard where 
the lower limbs of the tree have been removed, leaving a clear 
stock, so as to allow, in cultivating, the horse to pass under 
their branches and the cultivator to work the ground close to 
the trunks. No under support is left to the branches, and they 
require to be propped with poles, and have to be tied to the 
main limbs. The trunks are left exposed to the sun, and the 
ground under the trees invariably ''bakes" before it can be 
worked. 

Citrus-tree pruning can be commenced as early as January 
and continued through the spring months, but the best time to 
prune is immediately prior to the season of blooming. Oranges 
in the southern counties are picked from December to June; 
pruning follows the removal of the crop, and is regulated 
according to climatic conditions and the season. In the north- 
.ern counties the fruit is removed much earlier, and pruning is 
pursued accordingly. 

At all seasons of the year all superfluous sprouts on the 
trunk, and stray branches that threaten to throw the tree out 
of balance, should be removed without delay. The use of a 
sharp knife is very essential, and all cuts should be made as 
smooth as possible. All cuts made with a saw, especially large 
limbs, should be pared down smooth with a sharp knife, then 
waxed over or painted with gum shellac in proper solution to 
spread easily. 

The advantage low-trained trees have over the high-trimmed 
is easily seen in the accompanying illustrations, made from 



120 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



photographs taken in two of the largest orchards in the State, 
at San Gabriel. 

The cut on this page illustrates the method of high pruning 
followed by some growers who until recently were firm believers 
in the system. The trees require to be propped to support the 
fruit which is borne at the ends of the branches. As many as 
ten to fifteen poles are required on some trees to prevent the 
breaking of limbs that become heavily laden with fruit, besides 

tying them with ropes 
to the main branches. 
The ground underneath 
always "bakes" and 
the trees show yellow- 
ing of the leaves. Now, 
pause for a moment, 
study the picture and 
see what proportion of 
foliage is cut away, 
which, if left, would 
protect the upper limbs 
from breaking and al- 
low the fruit to be 
borne proportionately 
throughout. It is need- 
less, perhaps, to remark 
that the crop borne on 
such trees is consider- 
ably less than that 
borne by trees having^ 
a dense foliage and 

High-pruned trees— propped. trained low. 

The illustration on page 122 is of a low-trained tree, from 
a photograph taken in an orchard, and a fair specimen of hoAv 
the entire orchard looks. No props are used; there is little 
or no dead wood inside, caused by the hot rays of 'the sun; 
no limbs are required to be tied; and above all, the crop is 
always twice the size of that borne by high-trimmed orchards. 

In summer the trees must be irrigated, and as the cultivator 
can not- run close to the trunks the surface of most soils will 
"bake" by the heat before they can be worked by hand. On 




122 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



low- trained trees, the shade of the branches keeps the ground 
moist, and in case of excessive heat or scarcity of water, the 
trees will not suffer; whereas the heat dries out the soil beneath 
high-trimmed trees and causes the leaves to curl, and also 
checks the growth of the fruit unless the trees are again watered. 
Low-trained trees become well balanced, vigorous, healthy, and 
more productive, and the fruit is much more easily and cheaply 
gathered. 




A low-traiued tree— The favorite method. 

Propping. — Proper propping of orange trees becomes one 
of the essential features in orchard work. The old method of 
propping with willow poles has been improved upon by the 
construction of a prop which is both durable and adjustable, of 
which there are several patents. The prop is so placed that 
the ends rest under the tree, as shown in the illustration on the 
next page, from a photograph. When so arranged they do not 
interfere with the cultivator, as they naturally would if placed 
surrounding the tree on the outside. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — THE CROP. 



123 



THE OEANGE CROP-GATHEEINQ, ETC. 

Picking.^Generally the fruit is not taken from the trees at 
one picking; the ripe fruit is first picked, thus lightening up 
the trees. The clean, bright-colored, smooth, fine- shaped, firm 
oranges always command the best prices. Fruit is handled 
with care. Growers find it an advantage to stem-cut (clip), 
rather than to pull the orange, as in pulling there is danger of 
tearing the skin. The fruit should not be packed fresh from 
the tree, as when so packed it will heat and sweat in the box at 
an ordinary temperature, and, as the entire contents of the box 
become damp, there 
is great danger of rot 
and decay. The fruit 
should be picked into 
boxes and left in the 
packing-house three 
or four days, to allow 
the rind to shrink 
and lose its surplus 
moisture. Unless the 
weather is very cool 
oranges go through 
a natural sweat, in 
which the surplus 
moisture escapes and 
the rind becomes 
tough and pliable; 

many unseen imperfections, such as slight bruises, etc., will 
develop into spots, necessitating a more careful selection of the 
perfect fruit for market. 

Packing. — Packing oranges has almost been reduced to a 
fine art, and the following suggestions offered by experienced 
growers should be carefully followed: 

Use only the standard box, which is 11^x11^x26 inches, 
with a partition in the middle. It is of great importance in 
securing a perfect pack that the partition and ends of the box 
are, in their making, correctly placed. The sizes of oranges 
vary only one eighth of an inch in diameter, and the least irreg- 




Orange tree properly propped. 



/ 

124 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

ularity in box-making will cause the oranges of one side to be 
too high and the other side with the same sized fruit to be too 
low. In topping the packed box of oranges for shipment, the old 
method of hooping the ends and middle of the "box to secure 
the box during shipment has been discarded. With a proper 
machine the fruit is pressed at the extreme ends of the box 
only. The top pieces are held in place, and narrow, thin 
cleats are nailed across the top ends, which hold the top firmly 
in place. The center of the top is left free. By this method the 
fruit is hardly pressed in the box, and two advantages arise 
from this practice: The fruit arrives in better condition as to 
shape and soundness, and the buyer by removing the cleats 
can readily inspect the fruit and not injure the package. 

The arrangement which brings one orange directly on top of 
another, instead of breaking joints, has been discarded by the 
best packers. Alternated so that each orange comes over the 
space between two, the whole has more solidity and elasticity, 
and the fruit, as a result, sustains less injury from rough hand- 
ling. It is best to pack oranges upon the dovetail plan, which 
allows the packing of more oranges in the box, and they are so 
braced against each other as to be immovable. 

Regulate the size so as to have the oranges packed in tight 
and rise a full three quarters of an inch above the top of the 
box. Packers confine themselves to the 96, 112, 126, 150, 176, 
200, 216, and 250 sizes. If the sizer be properly adjusted, this 
will provide for all sizes and simplify matters very much. 

Do not dump the fruit into the boxes carelessly. Pack close 
and firm, so that the fruit will not have room to tumble about 
in the boxes and get bruised. 

Oranges classed as "fancy" should be extra bright, with 
very smooth, thin skin. Rough, thick-skinned fruit, be it ever 
80 bright, should never be classed as fancy. 

Oranges classed as "choice bright" should be strictly bright 
and of fairly smooth skin and desirable size. 

Oranges classed as "bright" should be bright and free from 
smut. 

Never pack bright and smutty oranges in the same box. 
Never pack large and small oranges in the same box. 

One of the most important features in the packing of oranges 
is the uniform neatness of the packages. Buyers will pay more 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — THE CROP. 125 

for fruit that is neatly and properly packed than they will for 
that which is carelessly put up. 

All growers should endeavor to avoid, as far as possible, the 
shipment of green and imperfect fruit. A few years ago the 
"windfalls" and "culls" brought paying prices, for the simple 
reason that there was, comparatively speaking, only a limited 
quantity of this class of fruit. Remember, however, that of 
late years the crop has steadily increased, and the supply of 
strictly good fruit is now becoming amply sufficient to fill ordi- 
nary demands, hence, the shipment of " drops," " culls," green 
and inferior fruit simply aids in depressing markets, and inter- 
feres seriously with the sale of good fruit. The shipment of 
inferior fruit is neither profitable to the grower nor creditable 
to the State. 

THE STANDARD ORANGE BOX. 

Standard Orange Boxes, 11>2" x ll>2"x 26". 

Ends 3 pieces H",x 111^" X 111^" 

Sides 8 pieces '4"x 5>^"x26" 

Cleats 2 pieces %" x ^"xlli^" 

Standard Orange Boxes, U %" x liyi" x 2(y" . 

. Ends 3 pieces jj" X IIJ^" X UK" 

Sides and bottoms 9 pieces }4"x 83^"x26" 

, Tops - 2 pieces 34" x 5J4"x26" 

Cleats .2 pieces %" x |i"xlli^" 

Standard Orange Boxes, 113^" x 11 3^" x 26". 

'. Ends 8 pieces ^"x 11}^" x 11»^" 

Tops and bottoms, and sides ..12 pieces J^"x 3J^" x 26" 

Cleats 2 pieces %"x U"xn}4" 

Half Orange Boxes, 5;x"x llVi"x26". 

Ends 3 pieces ^J" x 5%" xll}4" 

Slats 6 pieces 34" x 5}^" x 26" 

Cleats 2pieces %"x ^"xlV/i" 

Half Orange Boxes, by^" x\\]4" x2&'. 

Ends 3 pieces H"x by^" xn\i" 

Tops and bottoms 6 pieces 34" x 33^" x 26" 

Sides 2pieces34"x 5i4"x26" 

Cleats 2 pieces %"x H"xll%" 

Half Orange Boxes, 11 H" x 11 y^" x 13". 

Ends 2 pieces H"x 113^" X 113^" 

Slats.. ..8 pieces 34" x 514" ^ 13" 

Cleats 2pieces%"x \}," x\\%' 



126 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

SIZES OF ORANGES. 
No. in Inches in 

Box. Diameter. 

112 3i 

126 3i 

150 -... .- 3 

176 2| 

200... 2f 

216 2| 

250 - 2f 

300 2J 

PAPER USED IN PACKING DIFFERENT SIZED ORANGES. 

Size of Paper. Number of Oranges in Box. 

8x8 288-324-360 

9x9 — 216-250 

10x10 176-200 

11x11 .- .112-126-150 

12x12... 80- 96 

Weight of Oranges. — The weight of a box of oranges 
varies in each season, in the months of the same season, in 
different varieties, and in the different sizes of each variety. 
The difference in weight is caused by many circumstances. In 
some seasons climatic conditions are such as to build the tissues 
solid and firm. The plant seems to have an added power to 
construct the heavy sugar compounds and to build its tissues 
compact and with more than its usual weight. In arriving at 
the weight of oranges all of these conditions have to be con- 
sidered. An average season is when there is a continuous and 
even distribution of heat units during the summer months, 
with no frost to break the inner tissues of the orange, causing 
both evaporation of its juices and re-absorption, preventing the 
tree giving and the orange appropriating the starch-building 
compounds from the injured and unelaborated sap. There are 
also local conditions — as soil, nearness to the ocean, altitude, 
and the general slope of the orange area, as to the north, east, 
south, or west — to which may be added those personal condi- 
tions of irrigation, fertilization, and cultivation. 

Taking the season of 1895 as an average season, and the 
orange growths of March, April, May, and June, produced on 
the terrace lands of Colton, the average net weights of packed 
oranges in the standard orange box were as follows: 

Pounds. 

Washington Navel : 65.144 

Australian Navel 64.282 

Florida Navel 67.972 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA THE CROP. 127 

Pounds. 

Seedling --- - 64.095 

Homosassa --- 65.182 

Mediterranean Sweet .-. - 66.510 

St.Michael.- -. - --, 69.172 

Bloods - - 66.352 

Valencia Late 68.632 

Net average weight per Ixtx, all varieties and sizes, during 
the above months - 66.37 

The three principal varieties grown in California, or that 
will be grown, are the Washington Navel, Seedling (either 
natural or budded), and Mediterranean Sweet. The weights of 
these varieties are: 

Pounds. 

Washington Navel 65.144 

Seedling 64.095 

Mediterranean Sweet -. 66.510 

Net average weight of these varieties 65.247 

The sizes of oranges vary from 80 to 360 to the box. The 
size variation in weight per box of the three varieties of fruit is: 

Pounds. 

Washington Navel -..-- 6.56 

Seedling 7.51 

Mediterranean Sweet 5.03 

The average diflerence in weight of the three varieties of the 
light or heavy sizes is 6.36 pounds. 

Taking the same size for the determination of monthly 
variation in weight, and comparing the lightest and heaviest 
month's fruit of the three varieties named, the following 
variations in monthly weights appear for the 176 size: 

Washington Navel — Pounds. 

February 66 34 

March 67.12 

Variation 77 

Seedling- 
February 61.24 

May : 67.51 

Variation 6.27 

Mediterranean Sweet — 

May 65.96 

June 67.10 

Variation 1.14 

These deductions are of value in determining the proper 
sizes of each variety to grow and the profitable season to 
market each variety. 



128 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

The monthly variation of the Washington Navel shows that 
it matures early, and that it is practically uniform in weight. 
With the Seedling it is different; the increase in weight from 
February to May is over ten per cent — surely a good argument 
against sending to ma'rket the immature fruit of the former 
date. 

Standard Car of Oranges. — The regulations governing the 
variety of size in the "standard car of oranges" were adopted 
by the Fruit Growers and Shippers' Association of Southern 
California, as follows: 

Navel Oranges.— k standard car of Navel oranges to consist 
of sizes 96's to 200's inclusive; not over 15 per cent 96's and 
112's. Any excess of 15 per cent 96's and 112's to be considered 
off-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 50 cents per box. Sizes 
64's, 80's, and 250's, Navel, to be considered oflf-sizes and in- 
voiced at a reduction of 50 cents per box from the price for 
regular sizes. Sizes 216's, in Navels, to be considered off-sizes 
and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents per box. 

Seedlings, Mediterranean Sioeets, etc. — The standard car of 
other varieties (except Valencias and Paper-rind St. Michaels) 
to consist of sizes 126's to 250's inclusive; not to exceed 15 per 
cent i26's and not over 15 per cent 250's. Any excess of 15 
per cent 126's and 15 per cent 250's to be considered off-sizes 
and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents per box. Sizes of Seed- 
ling oranges larger and smaller than 126's to 250's, inclusive, 
to be considered off-sizes and invoiced at a reduction of 25 cents 
per box. 

It is understood that each car' of oranges may contain a 
reasonable quantity of off-sizes, at the reductions named above. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIB'ORNIA — DISEASES, ETC. 129 



ORANQE DROPPING, DISEASES, ETC. 

Generally during the month of June, and as early as May 
in some years, growers experience a continuous dropping of 
young fruit, due to various unknown causes. 

*" As a rule, growers ascribe it entirely to hot winds, and it 
is doubtless true that the extremely hot weather finds trees 
partially dormant and the damage is wrought on the young, 
tender oranges and lemons before the sap could start to flow- 
ing freely. But, on the other hand, we can see orchards that 
still have a fair crop of fruit. Why is it? is easily asked, but 
not so easily answered. The most universal remedy that is 
recommended is water, and in so far as it is used to put the 
tree in good condition, is doubtless effective. To do that water 
should be applied two or three weeks prior to the hot or cold 
weather: or in other words, the tree should at all times be in 
strong growing condition. To accomplish this, water in abun- 
dance down deep in the ground is necessary. Surface irriga- 
tion is of little avail. It will be noticed that those irrigators 
■who are applying water in the furrow until it reaches the lower 
•end, are the ones who scarcely ever have a crop, whether we "have 
iiot or cold weather, or the best of conditions. And right here 
I might say that the ideal season never comes, for there is 
always something with which to contend. I plan to irrigate 
my trees every six weeks, running the water eight or ten hours 
in each furrow. On heavy soil this would not be sufficient, 
but on my sandy loam it is. Following the irrigation I culti- 
vate deeply and thoroughl3\ I deem the deep cultivation 
essential so that the surface roots may be destroyed. This is 
still better accomplished in the wet season by deep plowing. 
I am thoroughly convinced that deep plowing is beneficial in 
all seasons, and especially so in dry ones. The roots are 
forced to go lower to where the supply of moisture is more 
permanent, consequently such trees are not so quickly aff'ected 
by any hot wave or sudden change. Therefore, I would say 
that the first requisite of always securing a good crop of oranges 
is deeply rooted trees irrigated so thoroughly that at all 

*C. B. Messenger, before Farmers' Institute at Pomona, October, 1896. 
9€ 



130 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

times there is in store a plentiful supply of moisture. Should 
I stop here and say that this is the one thing needful, I 
presume there are some who might declare it a fallacy, and 
quote their own experience in proof. In fact, in my inquiries 
I consulted one orchardist who had irrigated thoroughly three 
diflerent plots, respectively four weeks, two weeks, and one or 
two days before the first hot wave this spring, and yet a large 
percentage of his crop went to the ground." 

Wm. C. Fuller, of Colton, says: "I find the best crops near 
the heads of irrigating streams, and use the method described 
as so fatal by Mr. Messenger. To be sure I do not get as large 
a crop as some who use this same method. I had twelve 
carloads from about fifteen acres." 

Yellow and Variegated Leaves on Orange and Lemon 
Trees. — It is doubtful if there is a section in the State where 
orange and lemon trees can not be seen with yellow and 
variegated leaves. This has been ascribed to various reasons, 
such as too much or not enough water, too much or lack of 
cultivation, excessive cold, excessive heat, etc. 

Prof. S. M. Woodbridge, of Los Angeles, says: "Without 
wishing to offend any one for ill treating so good and paying 
a friend as the orange or lemon tree, we would suggest the 
answer in one word: Starvation. The remedy then would 
naturally lie in feeding. In reviewing the analyses of the soils 
in Southern California, one is naturally struck with the defi- 
ciency in sulphuric acid that such soils show. Having been 
brought up in a section of country where it was definitely 
settled that the ' only expensive ingredients that any soil 
was likely to be deficient in were nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
and potash,' and considering that there the form of phos- 
phate was invariably a superphosphate, i. e., made soluble 
by sulphuric acid, and further finding that untreated bone is 
the usual form in which it is used there, and also being con- 
vinced that the soil-analysis theory had been exploded years 
since and discarded by people the world over who are looked 
upon and considered ' authorities,' and having shown, by 
actual field tests, that potash was beneficial even on soils that 
had been reported as very rich in potash, and when the theo- 
retical advice had been given that no potash would be required 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — DISEASES, ETC. 131 

for many years; and also having followed out the experiments 
of A. B. Griffiths, Ph.D., F.R.S., of England, with the use of 
sulphate of iron, and also similar experiments conducted in 
France, and not having obtained as satisfactory results from a 
certain test plot on wornout soil as could have been desired, 
the writer used sulphate of iron in conjunction with the test 
plot. The result was so satisfactory that when one of the large 
growers of lemons and oranges last September asked what remedy 
could be applied to prevent the leaves of his trees from turning 
yellow and much of the fruit from ripening prematurely when 
not half grown, I suggested a liberal dose of complete fertilizer — 
that is, one containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash — 
together with about seventy-five pounds of sulphate of iron 
per acre. The orchard had previously been liberally treated, 
with stable manure, yet some of the trees were not in a healthy 
condition. Now the trees have a healthy green appearance, 
and nearly if not quite all of the new growth is of a bright or 
deep green color, whereas the trees that were not treated have 
the new growth showing a variegated, streaked leaf. Since the 
first experiment was tried several other plots have been treated 
in the same way, with the most gratifying results. As to the 
why and wherefore of the encouraging results obtained from 
the use of sulphate of iron, we confine ourselves to quoting 
what Dr. Griffiths says upon the subject : • 

'"Three years' experiments show that a small dressing of a 
hundredweight of iron sulphate per acre is a most beneficial 
manure. 

"'The author's proposition (Chemical News, Vol. XL VII, 
p. 27) was that a "fairly large proportion of soluble iron in a 
soil is favorable to the growth of plants developing a large 
amount of chlorophyll." And all subsequent investigations 
on the growth of crops with iron sulphate have entirely 
confirmed the accuracy of that proposition. 

"'AH soils contain iron as a constituent, but the iron is not 
always in a form to be readily taken up by growing crops. 
This being so, a crop must suffer, iron being one of the ingre- 
dients requisite for the formation of green chlorophyll. 

'"Chlorophyll is a substance of primary importance in every 
plant (giving rise in the first instance to starch, woody fibers, 
fats, and carbohydrates generally); therefore it is necessary to 



132 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

add soluble iron compounds, where the soil is deficient in these 
ingredients, or where the iron is not in a form for root-absorp- 
tion. Some soils are certainly deficient in soluble iron, and no 
amount of nitrates, ammonia salts, etc., will replace this 
ingredient. The farmer must add soluble iron salts to his 
land if he desires to obtain a full yield with the least expense. 
Dr. E. Wolff, the German authority, found that when soluble 
iron was omitted in certain culture experiments, the young 
plants became yellow and sickly, but they quickly became 
green and assumed a luxuriant growth when a small quantity 
of iron solution was added.' (Griffith on Manures, p. 268, etc.)" 

*"The 'Die-Back' Trouble. — This serious trouble is exan- 
thema or * die-back.' The name is given to a weakness affecting 
orange, lemon, and other orchard trees. There are several 
especially bad cases in the San Gabriel Valley, where solid 
blocks of citrus trees are now utterly worthless. Trees seven 
years old and in a frostless location have not attained a height 
of over four feet, in some instances, and bear little or no fruit, 
while adjoining trees of the same age and seemingly under 
similar conditions are of large size and bear heavy crops. 

"Orange trees affected with 'die-back' make an apparently 
healthy growth in the spring and early summer, but the young 
shoots soon turn yellow, the leaves drop off, and the twigs die 
back to the older wood, from which a brown granular sub- 
stance exudes. In a season or two, this older wood also dies. 
Adventitious buds keep developing at the axils of the leaves, 
until at the end of the season there are small knots, where 
there should be healthy lateral branches. Experiments with 
Bordeaux mixture and carbonate of copper have been made 
in a badly affected grove near Pomona. The work so far has 
shown no appreciable results, but it has not yet been carried 
through one season. 

" [In almost all cases of ' die-back,' examination has shown 
some fault in the subsoil, which puts the roots under stress. 
Such fault may be an underlying hardpan or impervious clay, 
pure and simple ; or it may be excessive wetness or dryness of 
the substrata surrounding the deeper roots; or the rise of 
bottom water from below, as in cases of over- irrigation. The 
*J. W. Miller, in University of California Bulletin No. 138. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA. — DISEASES, ETC. 133 

true 'die-back' is not properly a disease, but simply the mani- 
festation of the distress felt by the root-system underground. 
The first thing needful is to dig down and examine the roots, 
and then to relieve whatever fault may be found, if possible ; 
which may not always be the case. Sometimes an appearance 
similar to the ' die-back ' is caused by the roots encountering 
a marly stratum, which is apt to stunt the growth of the tree, 
causing it to put out a multitude of small, thin branches, and 
sometimes causing the tips to die off. For this form of the 
trouble there is no permanent remedy; the trees should never 
have been planted in such ground, any more than in such as 
has shallow-lying hardpan or clay. (E. AV. H.)] 

" ['Mottled Leaf.' — Closely related in its causes to the 'die- 
back,' and sometimes accompanying it, is the 'mottled leaf 
trouble. It may be properly called 'partial chlorosis' of the 
leaves, and on the basis of that designation it has been 
attempted to treat it like the corresponding human ailment, 
with iron tonics and fertilizers. But in every case that I have 
closely examined, and in most of those reported to me by others 
who have made such examinations at my suggestion, the cause 
was not lack of nourishment that could be remedied by such 
means, but simply an improper condition of the root-system, 
especially of the deeper roots. When a thriftily growing tree 
suddenly stops and begins to show mottled leaves, it is clearly 
not because of lack of nourishment in the soil, but because 
some of the physical requirements of the tree's well-being have 
ceased to be satisfied. In such case fertilization can afford but 
temporary relief, if any. 

" The commonest cause of mottled leaf is a layer of dry gravel 
or sand reached by the taproots, throwing them out of healthy 
action. Of course the same effect may be expected from the 
exhaustion of the usual supply of moisture in the substrata, 
which has not been made up for by the comparatively scanty 
irrigation permitted by the diminished water-supply during 
the past three yerrs. The cause of the present great prevalence 
of mottled or yellow-leaf in the citrus orchards is probably a 
parallel to the wholesale dying out of vineyards in the Santa 
Clara Valley, regarding which a special bulletin (No. 134) was 
issued by this Station some months ago. 



134 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

"Quite probably, however, other unfavorable conditions affect- 
ing the roots, such as alkali, marl, or a hardpan layer, may in 
many cases produce this effect. In any case, the cause should 
be sought for at the roots before deciding upon possible 
remedies. (E. W. H.)]" 

Gum Disease. — There are various forms of so-called "gum 
diseases." One attacks both young and old trees at the crown 
and roots of the tree, while another appears on the large limbs 
in the form of a " scab," and another on the trunks and main 
branches. 

The most deadly of these is the "root form," which is preva- 
lent almost everywhere. This form of the disease is first 
detected on the trunks of trees close to the ground, and is an 
exudation of the sap, which breaks through the bark and con- 
geals in the form of a gum. No citrus tree is free from the 
disease, and one of the newest facts regarding its appearance 
is that frequently the finest trees are attacked. It often hap- 
pens that in making a search for the early development of the 
disease, no trace of it is observed until exudation has freely 
commenced. It often happens, too, that in digging away the 
surface soil around the stem, little more than a black scratch 
about one to two inches long has been discovered, which when 
cut open shows the gummy fluid more or less encircling the 
wood under the bark. 

Remedy for the Gum Disease. — The best method of con- 
trolling this disease is to cut away the bark surrounding the 
place from whence the gum is oozing, in order to detect the 
main parts affected. The wood where the gum is oozing is cut 
out with a chisel and left for a day or so, to determine if all 
the disease has been removed. If it is not altogether removed, 
the affected parts soon commence to ooze out gum, when more 
of the wood is cut until it ceases. Yellow streaks of sour sap 
are generally seen in the grain of the wood, which are traces of 
the disease. If the affected parts show no further exudation it 
is proof that the disease has been removed, and the affected 
parts so treated are either waxed over or covered with a good 
coat of rubber paint. Where the disease has reached around 
the tree there is no possible cure for it, and in such cases it is 



136 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

better to remove the tree and put a healthy one in its place. 
The spot where the tree stood should be disinfected by a slack- 
ing of fresh lime, and the ground permitted to remain exposed 
for a reasonable time. 

This disease being of a bacterial form, all chips and scrapings 
should be carefully collected and burned, to prevent the spread 
of the disease through the orchard. The tools should also be 
dipped in some disinfectant before being used on other trees. 

Some growers are led to believe that badly diseased trees 
can be restored to perfect health by cutting back the tops and 
removing all large limbs to force a new growth. In all badly 
infected trees there are always a few healthy roots that furnish 
enough vitality to the tree to keep it alive. The cutting away 
of all the foliage forces new growth, and while the trees some- 
times produce large, coarse, puffy, and sour oranges for a few 
years, they finally succumb to the effects of the disease, and 
it is only a waste of time and energy to try to restore them. 

*" Crude commercial carbolic acid was found to be the best 
remedy, and was used in varying strengths. When mixed 
with its own weight of water it was found to answer the pur- 
pose admirably, the gum having been previously cut away, so 
that the application could be made directly on the parts most 
affected. The result in almost every case was that new bark 
began to grow over the diseased parts, at the lines where the 
old bark was healthy. In cases where the roots had become 
affected, the ground was carefully pulled away from the roots 
of the tree to the depth of from six to ten inches, and, after a 
day or two exposure, the diluted carbolic acid was applied, and 
in the course of three or four weeks a second application was 
made, when the soil was put back to its original position, and 
subsequent applications of diluted carbolic acid were made, 
from time to time, above the surface of the ground. Coal tar 
has been found to be very efficacious also. It is applied by 
taking the soil away from the roots of the tree and putting 
from one half pint to a quart (according to the size of the tree) 
in the soil about the roots of the tree, and covering the tar 
with the soil so removed. Among those so treated are some 



*Prof. S. M. Woodbridge, in essay before Farmers' Institute, Santa Bar- 
bara, 1894. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION. 137 

trees in the famous orange avenue of Sunny Slope. Too much 
care can not be exercised in the use of carbolic acid. The 
strength of the commercial acid varies, and it must be diluted 
to such an extent that the vegetable tissues will not be destroyed 
by it." 



FERTILIZATION. 

*"The question of fertilizers for the orange orchard has in 
some form been almost continuously before the club. What 
kind of fertilizers are the best, and how and when they should 
be put on, are questions often asked, but never as yet answered 
to the satisfaction of all. Careful experiments are being made 
by members of the club, but as yet we have nothing definite to 
report. However, it is known that the different commercial 
fertilizers on the market are good, and that freely applied they 
generally give satisfactory results. But the growers believe 
that they are too expensive, and that by buying the chemicals 
and doing their own mixing, or by applying the chemicals in 
suitable quantity to the soil without mixing, they may reduce 
the expense almost one half. This method is likely to be 
adopted by many growers, and that will tend to lower the 
price of the fertilizers now on the market. 

" There is a growing conviction among our orchardists that 
stable manure is one of our most valuable fertilizers, when it 
can be secured at reasonable figures. A member of our club 
has a small Navel orchard, fifteen years old, a part of which 
has been fertilized exclusively with stable manure. It has 
borne regularly, and the fruit has been fully up to the average 
standard in quality. But it is probably better as a rule to 
vary the kind of fertilizer applied." 



*From report of J. M. Edmi^ton to Riverside Horticultural Club, 
February, 1899. 



138 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.* 

In the use of any kind of fertilizer there are so many 
unknown conditions prevailing, so great difference in soils and 
in their general treatment, and the ignorance of the construc- 
tion of the fertilizer, that with me it is difficult to attend to this 
important work with any scientific exactitude. I presume those 
who will make the question a study may eventually gain such 
knowledge as will enable them to discern the wants of their 
soil, and become sufficiently posted in agricultural chemistry 
that they will know how to provide these requirements at the 
least expense and with the greatest degree of accuracy. But. 
what is the ordinary rancher going to do about it? 

Uncertain Results. — The growers of my section have experi- 
mented with almost every kind of fertilizer, but the results, in 
the way of better crops, have not been so marked and so plainly 
attributed to the applied articles, that many of us dare speak 
with any degree of certainty. We wish we could. One grower, 
and the only one I have talked with who has continued to use 
the same compounded article for so long as four years, has 
gathered each year a profitable crop. A neighbor adjoining, 
who has used nothing, has also harvested good crops. Another, 
who has used different kinds of fertilizers, and with no attempt 
at regularity, has usually gathered abundance. This, of course, 
is not conclusive evidence that fertilizers are not helpful, but 
when similar experiences are general it leaves one in great 
doubt as to what should be done. We have no money to spend 
upon that which does not at least bring an equivalent in larger 
or better crops, yet Ave are quite anxious to do that which will 
enhance the quality of the fruit and maintain the groves in 
vigor for the longest possible time. 

The soil in the Fullerton and Placentia districts in general 
abounds in the essential elements — potash, nitrogen, and phos- 
phoric acid — and is capable of sustaining an enormous draft 
upon it for a considerable time, if properly manipulated. Win- 
ter plowing, a couple of good irrigations, and proper cultivation, 
I believe, have never failed to produce a good crop, providing 
always that the trees are free from scale and intelligently 
pruned. We do not consider it prudent, however, to make too 

*By C. C. Chapman, Poinological Meeting, Covina, 1898. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION. 139 

great demands upon the soil without giving back some equiva- 
lent in the way of plant-food. I think many of our people 
have tried to discover just what is most needed in the way of 
substantial diet, but, as previously stated, only a few have found 
that which is satisfactory. As our groves advance in age, how- 
ever, more marked results may be noticed in the application of 
fertilizers. 

Pretty much every brand of commercial fertilizer finds users 
among our growers; but so far as my information goes, with 
one exception, of those who are not interested in some way in 
the sale of these goods, the users have no very decided views 
as to results. They are unable to say positively that one kind 
has given better results than another, and in many cases are 
not convinced that any favorable returns were obtained from 
their use. 

There may be reasons for these discouraging experiences 
which can be explained by those informed. If we only knew 
just what to employ with that degree of certainty that we use 
hydrocyanic acid gas to kill scale, we should feel that the pro- 
duction of citrus fruits could be regulated with almost scientific 
accuracy. 

Great Anticipations. — I recognize one difficulty in the employ- 
ment of commercial fertilizers that not infrequently prevails, 
and that is, the too great expectation of immediate good results 
to be derived from their use. The fertilizer is scattered about 
and then a magical change is looked for, and a consequent 
inactivity in cultivation results, and in the end perhaps dis- 
appointment. We should follow the. example of the good 
Baptist deacon who prayed most fervently for a good crop, and 
then turned all hands out early to help the Lord answer his 
prayer. We should not depend upon the fertilizer, however 
high priced, to take the place of the whole process of crop 
production. 

An Experiment. — I have been frequently questioned as to 
what fertilizer we use on the San Isabel ranch; the parties 
inquiring wishing to know so that they might employ that which 
had produced such excellent results. I regret very much that 
I have been unable to reply to these inquiries in a manner 
that makes the answer of any practical value. Two years ago 
I made what I intended to be a fairly practical test of different 



140 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

fertilizers. I can not say that the experiment was satisfactory 
in giving the information that would guide me in the 
future as to what to do to insure a good crop. Upon a plot of 
one thousand trees I put a light dressing of sheep manure. 
Upon the next one thousand I used commercial fertilizer. The 
adjoining one hundred I passed without giving anything. 
Upon the next plot I used lime cake. Next to this I used 
bone meal. Then, upon another plot, I used the sheep manure, 
commercial fertilizer, bone meal and lime cake, and some wood 
ashes — a little of each. The crop came, and it was in great 
abundance in all parts of the orchard. I am frank to say 
that I could not distinguish any material difference in the 
size, quality, or texture of the fruit grown upon the various 
plots. This was not a little disappointing, for I had looked 
forward to this plan of testing soil requirements and the rela- 
tive value of various fertilizers to decide this most perplexing 
question. I supposed I would be able to tell thereafter just 
what the soil demanded in order to produce desired results. 
But I was still left in the dark. I will add that while I may 
have been unable to distinguish any material difference in 
results after employment of fertilizers, I have noticed unmis- 
takable evidences of the value of proper irrigation and 
cultivation. 

The year following, last year, being able to secure sheep manure 
at what I considered a reasonable price, I used it in giving the 
orchard a light dressing, with the exception of two plots. The 
harvest was the heaviest ever secured, and the fruits of the 
highest grade, and I still could distinguish no material 
difference in the yield in any part of the orchard. 

I am quite aware that there was a combination of favorable 
influences generally prevailing last year, which gave the great- 
est abundance of fruit to non-users of fertilizers as well as to 
their most enthusiastic advocates, or to those who used a 
common article, as to those who applied the most expensive 
commercial production. So I am still in doubt. 

The portion of the orchard which is the heaviest set this 
year is the plot that had the entire combination of fertilizers 
two years ago. Other favorable conditions, I think, are at 
least in a measure responsible for this. 

. Aeration of the Soil. — I am convinced that we have much 
plant-food in some of our soils that is not utilized on account 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION, 141 

of our failure to sufficiently aerate the soil by proper and 
frequent cultivation. The air, I believe, is an essential factor 
in carrying on the process of nitrification. A circulation of air 
through the soil will unquestionably increase the available 
supply of nitrogenous food. 

I know little of chemistry, but I observe that soils kept open 
and thoroughly aerated produce great growth, even without 
the application of fertilizers of any kind; whereas, soils com- 
pacted, however rich in plant-food, will not compare in results. 
I thus philosophize because I believe much plant-food will 
never be utilized until the soil is properly aerated. Cultivation 
is therefore an important factor in proper fertilization of soil. 

How to Apply. — Fertilizers are variously applied by orchard- 
ists. One grower, and he has a fine, well-kept orchard I notice, 
scatters barnyard or sheep manure immediately around the 
trunks of the trees, and extending out five or six feet. Generally, 
however, fertilizers are scattered broadcast between trees and 
plowed under; some, however, drill them in. The latter, for 
commercial goods or ground sheep manure, is the best method, 
in my opinion. I observe that the grove first referred to is 
vigorous in growing, but this year has a light crop. 

However, the advocates of these different methods generally 
point to good crops as the result of their plans. One thing is 
certain, it either makes little or no difference with us what is 
used, or how applied, or else the fertilizers are so all-])owerful 
that it is only necessary to have them come in contact with 
the soil to have it respond. 

Some of our people have experimented with green crops for 
fertilizing, but have nothing satisfactory to report. Perhaps if 
they had used some of the leguminous plants recently secured 
from Europe, and so highly recommended by Professor Hilgard 
and others, results might have been quite different. 

More Investigation Desirable. — I want to commend this 
subject to the careful investigation of the more observing and 
scientific of our growers, so that the work of fertilizing our 
citrus orchards may be reduced to a science so plain, simple, 
and practical that any of us may comprehend it, and that the 
results will be such that an all-assuring faith in its principles 
may prevail. I am pleased to note that the Agricultural 
Department of our State University, as well as those interested 



142 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

in the manufacture of fertilizers, have made and are making 
a careful study of the subject, and have done much in dissemi- 
nating general knowledge of the question and in educating 
the public. Those who give the matter candid and honest 
thought should be commended, and while they may be pri- 
marily promoted by selfish motives in the way of financial 
gain, yet if they devote any special ability they may possess 
to a more perfect comprehension of the question they should 
be regarded as public benefactors. 

FERTILIZING CITRUS TREES.* 

Some four or five years ago I commenced hauling stable 
manure on the orchard, and on the information of good 
authority, that the trees would not need fertilizing probably 
for some years, and that when they did it would be nitrogen, I 
bought and applied in the fall Chili saltpeter, a small amount 
per tree, with the evident result that I had more puffy fruit 
than 1 ever had before up to that date. I say evident result, 
as the orange-growers who used it in Los Angeles County had 
the same experience. 

Four years ago I commenced to apply Woodbridge's Orange 
Fertilizer. Following this use my oranges improved in color — 
at least had a higher color — the increased yield making the 
oranges smaller and more desirable. Last December I sowed 
twelve pounds of Woodbridge's Orange Fertilizer No. 1 per 
tree, and cultivated it in. Then in January and Febru- 
ary last I put in addition upon one section of the orchard 
fifteen pounds per tree of the West Coast Fertilizer; and on 
another portion of the orchard fifteen pounds of Bradley's 
Nursery Stock Fertilizer; and on another portion of the 
orchard fifteen pounds of pure guano, to test their relative 
values. From the portion of the orchard where I used West 
Coast Fertilizer the fruit was the tenderest I ever had; per- 
haps the word softest would explain the character — and it 
needed shipment first. My opinion was that it should go 
under ice; but Chicago said not to ice. When the fruit 
arrived in the East, then the advice came to ice the cars. 
After shipping this fruit I commenced on the section where I 
had used the Bradley Nursery Stock Fertilizer, and this fruit, 

* Extracts from essay by N. W. Blanchard, President of the Lemonia 
Company of Santa Paula, before Farmers' Institute, 1897. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION. 143 

while not soft like the first, did not stand up well, and a large 
amount of it became puffy and could only be classed as culls. 
The last shipments of oranges came from the portion of the 
orchard where guano was used. The fruit was not puffy, 
although it was late in June. The oranges, however, had com- 
menced to drop a good deal and did not keep much better than 
the rest. It should be added here that the promise for the next 
year's crop of oranges is best where I used the Bradley fertil- 
izer; then next the West Coast, and last where the pure guanq 
was used. It should be said that there was a general com- 
plaint last year that all the oranges did not keep well. I was 
told in both San Francisco and Sacramento that never before 
did oranges keep so poorly. Now, the interesting question 
is, Why did the oranges not keep as well as formerly, and 
what was the cause of the difference in the quality and keep- 
ing of the oranges? It will be remembered that the rains of 
last winter came slowly and timely for the agriculturists, and 
a larger portion of the rain was taken up by the soil than in 
any winter of my remembrance since I have been in the 
valley, a period of twenty-five years. The orchards were 
soaked with water for several months. This probably explains 
the reason for the general non-keeping quality of the last 
orange crop; and the only reason I can assign for the differ- 
ence in the keeping quality of the oranges from the different 
sections of my orchard was the difference in the amount of 
nitrogen in the different fertilizers — the poor crop being 
accentuated, perhaps, by the stable manure put on the orch- 
ard. One point was called to my attention, to wit: that the 
trees bordering a deep ditch through the orchard had better 
fruit than the trees more distant from the ditch, indicating 
that the ground needed draining. 

In regard to the use of nitrogen or ammonia, I had supposed 
that the same result would be attained in whatever form it was 
used, and have only recently learned that this is not the case. 
For instance, ammonia in Chili saltpeter is very quickly taken 
up by the tree roots, or washed out of the soil by rains or irri- 
gation, while it may be so combined in other materials as to 
give up its ammonia slowly, and this would make a difference 
in the value of fertilizers of the same analysis. 

A few years ago I found some of the limbs of the orange 
trees dying and some dead. This I have arrested, I believe. 



144 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

by fertilization. I am this year using the Bradley Orange 
Tree Fertilizer at the rate of thirty pounds per tree, or twenty- 
four hundred pounds per acre, making two applications in the 
year, say one in January and one in July. 

ECONOMY IN FERTILIZATION* 

Numerous inquiries regarding the necessity or expediency of 
potash fertilization in this State, and the fact that active mis- 
representation of my views and teaching in the premises has 
been made by interested parties, render it expedient that these 
views should be briefly formulated in print for the benefit of 
persons interested. 

What the Plant Needs. — It is an elementary fact, pretty 
generally understood, that, strictly speaking, all substances 
used by plants for building up their tissues are of equal impor- 
tance; in so far as in the entire absence of any one of them, plant 
development can not occur at all. But it is universally known 
and admitted that all but three or four of these are present in 
ordinary soils in sufficient amounts and in an available con- 
dition for the purposes of plant growth. The only ingredients 
usually required to be replaced by the use of fertilizers are 
potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and lime. Any fertilizer 
containing all of these may be considered "complete," and 
when supplied after each crop in the same amount and in the 
same proportion as has been finally withdrawn by the sale of 
the crop, soil exhaustion can be indefinitely prevented and 
fertility perpetuated. The only question, then, about which 
there can be any discussion is: whether in every case the use of 
all the four substances is really necessary, or whether one or more 
can, for the time at least, be omitted. This question arises 
most obviously with reference to the great differences existing 
in the kind and amount of draft made by different crops on 
the soil. Thus, root crops withdraw very large amounts of 
potash from the soil, while drawing but lightly upon phos- 
phoric acid and nitrogen; on the other hand, cereal crops are 
known to draw very heavily on phosphoric acid and nitrogen, 
while taking up a comparatively small amount of potash only. 
These facts form the main basis of the utility of rotation of 

*By Prof. E. W. Hilgard, Director of Agricultural Experiment Station, 
University of California. In " Pacific Rural Press," November 4, 1896. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION. 145 

crops; and the same principle is recognized in the practical 
fertilization of the root crops with fertilizers that include 
chiefly potash, while for grain a combination of nitrogen and 
phosphoric acid is usually given and found most profitable. 

Supplying Deficiencies. — The reason why in many cases the 
return of one or two of these fertilizing ingredients can be 
omitted from the replacement is that the soil itself frequently 
contains a larger proportion of one or several of these same 
ingredients in a form available to plants; that, moreover, these 
ingredients, usually occurring in the soil chiefly in a difficult 
soluble condition, are gradually set free, by the " fallowing" 
action of the atmosphere, from their insoluble combinations, 
so as to become available to plants; and that if the soil is 
naturally rich in one or more of these ingredients, the return 
of such ingredient may be omitted, either after a fallow or after 
a crop that has drawn but lightly upon it. Thus, after a root 
crop phosphoric acid may usually be omitted from fertilization, if 
the soil is known to be (naturally or artificially) rich in phos- 
phoric acid; and the same, of course, is true of potash and 
nitrogen in other cases. In so doing, the husbandman draws 
upon the natural resources of the land, availing himself of the 
advantages of a rich soil; but those who cultivate soils nat- 
urally poor may be compelled to return in every case each one 
of the three or four ingredients needed for and commonly used 
in fertilization. 

Wasteful Practice. — Were the immediate return of everijthing 
that the crop takes away necessary on every soil, the possessor 
of rich land would have no advantage over the owner of poor 
land, for as soon as the first flush of fertility is exhausted in 
the virgin soil, both would be equally obliged to supply the full 
amount of ingredients withdrawn from the soil by each crop. 
But the experience of centuries has shown that such integral 
replacement is altogether unnecessary on very many lands, and, 
as a result, the use of a " complete" fertilizer is in Europe a 
rare exception, save as regards stable manure. Farmers buy 
the individual ingredients as furnished in commerce, according 
to the supposed requirements of the land, as deduced either 
from its previous history or from the known richness of the 
soil in either one or the other ingredient in question. 
10c 



146 STATE BOAKD OF HORTICULTURE. 

Complete Fertilizers. — In the United States the habit of pur- 
chasing everything "ready made" prevails to an unusual 
extent, and fertilizer manufacturers mostly cater to this demand 
by supplying "complete fertilizers," compounded in accordance 
with the known requirements for certain crops, therefore on the 
supposition that the soil supplies nothing of itself. In purchasing 
these complete fertilizers the farmer is, therefore, likely to pay 
for one or perhaps two ingredients which the soil may not 
require at all to produce the most profitable crops, when his 
money would be probably much better spent in procuring a 
larger amount of one substance specially needed. The enor- 
mous waste of money thus incurred is now so well recognized 
in Europe that the manufacture and sale of mixed fertilizers 
has been almost completely superseded by that of the simples 
themselves. A farmer buys superphosphate, potash salts, 
or nitrogenous fertilizers separately, in accordance with a 
rational understanding of the requirements of his land, more 
particularly with reference to the nature of the preceding 
crop, the amount and the kind of draft made on the land, and 
the character of the latter. 

That this is the only rational and economical mode of using 
commercial fertilizers is indisputable; it is only in the case of 
stable manure itself that the farmer is compelled to use all the 
ingredients indiscriminately. The farmer who, either from 
lack of knowledge or from inertness, spends his money for "com- 
plete" fertilizers, a part of which he may not need at all, need 
not be surprised if the increase of crop resulting from their 
application does not yield adequate returns for the outlay 
incurred. The fertilizer manufacturer naturally desires to sell 
his wares and is not specially interested in reducing the farmer's 
expenditures therefor. 

California Soils. — As regards the soils of this State, experience 
has shown that an unusually large proportion of them remain 
profitably productive without fertilization for a considerable 
length of time, and that when virgin soils, or such as have been 
under cultivation for a short series of years only, fail to pro- 
duce satisfactory crops, it is usually due to other defects than 
lack of fertility, requiring to be supplemented by fertilization. 
Even in the East it takes from seven to thirty years to reduce 
the production of "fresh" soils below profitableness, and the 
nature of the crops grown being known, it is not difficult to 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION. 147 

determine Avhat ingredient or ingredients are most urgently 
required to restore production. 

A simple leaching with water shows many of our valley 
soils to contain, in water-soluble condition, a large proportion of 
potash salts, so as to render the idea of supplying more of the 
same substance simply absurd. Thus, the ten-acre experi- 
mental tract near Chino contains per acre an average of over 
1,200 pounds of water-soluble potash in the first three feet, 
equivalent to the amount required for eight twenty-ton crops 
of sugar beets, without drawing on the less soluble but much 
more copious soil store. Similar cases are common in other 
valley regions of the State. These facts speak for themselves. 

Equally simple tests show that in the great majority, 
probably at least three fourths, of the soils of the State, lime is 
so abundant that it need not be supplied for centuries to come 
at least. These facts are easily ascertainable by any one having 
even a superficial knowledge of chemistry. 

But more elaborate investigation and analysis show that 
while both lime and potash are present in unusually large 
proportion, as compared with soils east of the Mississippi and 
in Europe, phosphoric acid and nitrogen are, on the contrary, 
as a rule, present in small amounts, and likely to become defi- 
cient in a short time under exhaustive cultivation. 

What to Use First. — Upon these plain and simple facts is 
based my recommendation to California farmers that, when- 
ever production of their land becomes unsatisfactory, they 
should try any large-scale fertilizer first with phosphates and 
nitrogen, and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then 
with potash also; this being the order in which these substances 
are likely to become deficient in most of our soils under culti- 
vation. 

In the course of time potash fertilization will become widely 
necessary in this State, also; but it is certainly not among the 
first things generally required, as is actually the case in the East 
and in Europe. Under continuous heavy cropping with root 
crops, such as beets, potatoes, or artichokes, or with small fruits, 
such as strawberries, potash fertilization has already, as a mat- 
ter of fact, become necessary at some points and will gradually 
become more so. On the gray soils of the foothills of Amador 
and Placer counties we have found it necessary from the very 



148 STATE BOAED OF HORTICULTURE. 

outset, these soils being as poor in potash as Eastern lands. 
The same is true of some of the sandy lands of the interior. 

My advice to the farmers of California is and has been simply 
that, in order not to waste their money for the purchase of 
ingredients probably not necessary, they. should begin by sup- 
plying those most likely to be required at the time, and to turn 
to the use of potash fertilizers only after they have found the 
effect of phosphatic and nitrogenous ones to be unsatisfactory. 

The efforts of those interested in selling as much as possible 
of their manufactured products are, quite naturally, in opposi- 
tion to this policy, but the advice of the interested party is not 
usually the one most likely to benefit the taker. 

How to Make Experiments. — Plot experiments made with dif- 
ferent fertilizers must, in order to be of definite value, be made 
on a sufficiently large scale to eliminate the source of error 
arising from local differences in soil and subsoil, and must be 
checked by several check plots so interposed between the others 
as to not only check them by direct comparison, and to prevent 
the washing of fertilizers from one fertilized plot to another, 
but must also be compared, first of all, among themselves, so 
as to determine what is the normal product of the unfertilized 
land. It will frequently be found that these unfertilized check 
plots differ more widely between themselves than do the 
fertilized ones from them or from each other. It usually takes 
several seasons to come to definite results. 

A question wholly aside from those discussed above is that 
of the special modification of crops by the use of a surplus of 
certain substances known to produce a specific effect. Thus, 
common salt is known to make asparagus and some other 
vegetables more succulent and tender; nitrogenous matter 
increases the size and succulence of fruits, and some experi- 
ments made with potash fertilizers on oranges point to an 
increase of sweetness thereby. It is then simply a question 
whether or not purchasers appreciate such modifications sufii- 
ciently to render their attainment a profitable undertaking, 
apart from any increase of the crop or the maintenance of soil 
fertility. 



THE OKANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION. 149 

ADVANTAGE OF FERTILIZING SMALL TREES.* 

Careful experiments have established another important 
point in bringing a young orchard into speedy and profitable 
bearing. That is, that by giving it a moderate dressing of 
stable manure, or some other good fertilizer, it may be brought 
into bearing one or two years earlier than if no fertilizer had 
been used. Experiments have been made by fertilizing some 
parts of a young orchard and leaving another part without, 
demonstrating that the part fertilized would bear enough more 
than the other, the first crop, to far more than pay for the fer- 
tilizer used, while, owing to the increased growth of the trees, a 
still greater difference in productiveness would be realized in 
the second crop. The fact is well established that a young 
orchard judiciously fertilized and well cared for, at five or six 
years from planting may be brought into profitable bearing, 
while one of the same age which has not been fertilized will 
give small and unsatisfactory returns. The two orchards cost 
the same for water and care, and yet the one fertilized yields 
a handsome profit, while the other little more than pays 
expenses. 

FERTILIZING THE SOIL AS AFFECTING THE ORANGE IN 
HEALTH AND DISEASE, f 

Fertilizing for Growth and Fruit. — Primarily the orange- 
grower desires to know how to fertilize so as to stimulate either 
growth or fruit production. With oranges, as with many other 
agricultural plants, one may fertilize in such a manner that 
excessive growth is stimulated at the expense of fruit produc- 
tion. A strong nitrogenous fertilizer results usually in much 
growth and little fruit. This seems to be particularly true if 
the ammonia is added in an organic form. While trees are 
young it is probably well to favor the growth of wood princi- 
pally; but at the age of seven or eight years from the bud, the 
tree, if it has grown properly, will have attained sufficient size 
to begin to produce a fair quantity of fruit. It should then be 
given a slightly modified fertilizer, containing more potash and 

*From report of J. M. Edmison, to Riverside Horticultural Club, Febru- 
ary, 1899. 

+ Extracts from an article by Herbert J. Webber, Assistant in Division of 
Vegetable Pathology, Washington, D. C. A deduction from Florida experi- 
ence, which naturally will interest California citrus-growers. 



150 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

phosphoric acid and less nitrogen, to stimulate fruit production 
as much as possible. The so-called chemical manures appear 
to be much more active in stimulating fruit production than 
organic manures. 

Effect on Quality of Fruit. — The experience of many orange- 
growers indicates that the quality of the fruit may be largel}' 
controlled by fertilization. As oranges are purchased very 
largely on their appearance and quality, this becomes an 
important consideration in manuring. Many intelligent grow- 
ers are coming to believe that the best results can be obtained 
by giving the trees an application of that element only which 
seems to be lacking, and not using, as a majority do, a com- 
plete fertilizer, in definite proportions, regardless of whether 
all the elements are needed by the plant or not. If it can be 
determined by the appearance of the tree and fruit Avhat 
element is lacking, this would seem to be the most rational 
way to fertilize. 

It seems reasonable to suppose that by careful study patho- 
logical characters induced by starvation might be found, which 
would serve to indicate clearly the lack of any particular 
element. Some growers claim to be able to recognize these 
characters now, and are fertilizing largely on this modified 
plan, taking advantage of what we might call the sign language 
of the tree. Some of these characters will be mentioned below 
under the consideration of the different elements used. 

Effect on Soil Moisture. — In fertilization at least two factors 
must usually be considered: the element of plant-food supplied, 
and the effect of this upon the soil as aiding it in supplying 
the plant with moisture. The heavy application, in late fall 
or early spring, of an organic manure, like blood and bone, 
which is extensively used in Florida, is liable to lead to injuri- 
ous effects during the spring drought, if the trees are on high 
and dry land. On the other hand, such soils might be ameli- 
orated by using substances which attract water and increase 
the surface tension of soil moisture. Nitrogen, for instance, 
used in the form of nitrate of soda, and potash, in the form of 
kainit, would tend to draw up the subsoil moisture and proba- 
bly aid largely in supplying the necessary moisture during 
this trying season. The use of organic manures, on the con- 
trary, would only exaggerate the damage produced by drought. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION. 151 

If groves are on very moist land, as is frequently the case in 
Florida, where the necessity is to lessen the moisture rather 
than to increase it, some form of organic manure, as muck or 
blood and bone, might be found of benefit. 

Effect of Fertilizers on the Orange in Health. — The elements 
which need to be supplied in fertilization to most Florida orange 
groves are nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus; or, using the 
terms in which they are expressed in most analyses of fertil- 
izers, ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. The application 
of lime would also prove of benefit to many groves. Probably 
no element of plant-food used in the fertilization of orange 
groves should be more carefully considered, with respect to 
both form and quantity, than nitrogen. It is the most costly 
and at the same time the most dangerous element to use, as 
excessive applications are liable to result in extensive dropping 
and splitting of the fruit or in the production of the serious 
disease known as die- back. 

Effect of Nitrogen. — A grower may with considerable certainty 
determine by the appearance of his trees the condition of his 
grove in respect to the supply of nitrogen available in the soil. 
An abundance of nitrogen is indicated by a dark green color of 
the foliage and rank growth. The fruit shows the effect of an 
abundance of nitrogen by being, in general, large, with a com- 
paratively thick and rough rind. If the trees have a yellowish 
foliage, with comparatively small leaves, and show little or no 
growth, there is probably a lack of nitrogen. In this case there 
is but little fruit formed, and that formed is small and usually 
colors early. If the tree is starving from a lack of nitrogen, 
the foliage will become very light yellow and sparse, and the 
small limbs will die, as will also the large limbs in extreme 
cases. If the starvation is continued, no fertilizer being added, 
the tree will finally die back nearly to the ground and prob- 
ably die out entirely. The extreme symptoms of general 
starvation from lack of all elements are probably nearly the 
same. The nitrogen used in fertilization is commonly derived 
from mineral or organic sources. Of the former, sulphate of 
ammonia and nitrate of soda are the forms most used; of the 
latter, muck, dried blood, blood and bone, cottonseed meal, 
tankage, fish scrap, stable manure, etc., are the forms most 
commonly employed. 



152 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

Stable Manure of Doubtful Utility. — Barn manure is largely 
used by many growers, who still hold to the tradition that 
chemical manures are injurious to the plants. The benefits of 
barn manure in an orange-grove are in serious question. The 
fruits produced by nitrogen from this source are usually large, 
coarse, thick-skinned, with abundant rag, and of inferior 
flavor. If barn manure is used — and most growers have a 
limited quantity and desire to use what they have — it should 
be spread over the grove lightly, so that each tree receives only 
a small amount. Where such manure is depended upon as 
the main element of fertilization, liberal dressings of potash 
should be occasionally applied; this will tend to correct the 
evils of an overbalanced nitrogeneous fertilizer. What has been 
said as to the effect of barn manure on the quality of fruit 
applies equally to the eifects produced by muck, cottonseed 
meal, blood and bone, tankage, etc. 

In general, organic fertilizers do not stimulate fruiting to the 
same extent as the mineral fertilizers. It is probably better 
economy to apply such fertilizers to annual crops, cereals, 
garden truck, etc. 

Mineral Nitrogen. — The mineral nitrogen manures, nitrate 
of soda and sulphate of ammonia, apparently stimulate pro- 
duction of fruit more than organic manures, and yet promote 
a fair general growth. The fruit produced by fertilization with 
these salts, used in correct proportions with the other elements 
which it is necessary to apply, is usually of good quality, being 
solid, juicy, and rich, with thin skin and little rag. Sulphate 
of ammonia has the effect, growers testify, of sweetening the 
fruit to a considerable extent. There seems to be little doubt 
as to the correctness of this view, but why it is so remains 
in question. The sweetening is probably more marked if 
there is a slight deficiency in potash. The use of very large 
quantities of either sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda 
may result disastrously, acting as "chemical poison," killing 
the trees outright and causing them to throw off their leaves. 

Sulphate of ammonia has been very widely used among 
orange-growers. Nitrate of soda has been but little used thus 
far, but is apparently growing in favor. Its insecticide and 
water-attracting properties are probably much greater than 
those of sulphate of ammonia. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FERTILIZATION. 153 

Potash Fertilizers. — In fertilizing the orange, potash is most 
frequently used, either in the form of the sulphate or of wood 
ashes. While sulphate of potash has been most widely used, 
there is apparently little evidence that it is superior to other 
forms. Muriate of potash, containing the equivalent of about 
fifty per cent of actual potash, the form probably most used 
in the apple and peach orchards of the North, has been little 
used in orange groves. Apparently those who have used this 
form have obtained uniformly good results. Kainit, or German 
potash salt, which is a crude double salt of magnesium sulphate 
with calcium chloride, containing the equivalent of from twelve 
to fourteen per cent of actual potash, is a form much used in 
Northern orchards and is promising for use in orange groves. 
Its very active effect in increasing the surface tension of the 
soil moisture, and thus attracting water to the trees, might 
make it an excellent form to add in early spring to aid the 
plant in withstanding the spring drought, which is so frequently 
injurious to the orange tree and sometimes fatal to the fruit 
crop. Growers not supplied with facilities for irrigation would, 
undoubtedly, find it profitable to consider carefully points of 
this nature in fertilization. The noticeable effect of potash on 
the orange tree appears to be its aid in completing and matur- 
ing the wood. Apparently an insufficient amount of potash is 
shown by an excessive growth of weak, immature wood, which 
does not harden up as winter approaches and is liable to be 
injured by frost. 

An abundance of potash, in the form of sulphate of potash 
or tobacco stems, is said by many growers to produce excess- 
ively sour fruit. That potash is very necessary in fruit 
production is shown by the fact that the fruit contains a large 
percentage of this element. An average of fifteen analyses of 
different varieties of Florida oranges shows S^.OS per cent to 
be about the usual amount of potash in the ash of the orange 
fruit. The ash in these fifteen analyses averaged 0.916 per 
cent, or less than one per cent of the total weight of the fruit. 

Phosphoric Acid. — Phosphoric acid, which is a very necessary 
element of fertilization on Florida orange lands, is mostly used 
in the form of dissolved bone black, acidulated bone or phos- 
phate rock, soft phosphate, raw bone, guano, etc. The immedi- 
ate effect of phosphoric acid on the orange tree and fruit is 
little understood. Several intelligent growers claim to be able 



154 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

to recognize the effect of phosphorus starvation by the appear- 
ance of the new growth of leaves. If these, when they first 
push out or while they are still young and tender, present a 
slightly variegated appearance, mottled with light and dark 
green, it is claimed they are suffering from lack of phosphorus, 
and that if a liberal application of some soluble phosphate is 
applied this appearance may be checked. If this can be shown 
to be true it will prove a valuable index to the available 
quantity of phosphoric acid in the soil. A similar appearance 
may, however, appear in light cases of the so-called " f renching," 
a disease, or probably more properly a symptom of disease, 
which is not uncommon. Phosphorus starvation, it is true, 
may have some etiect in inducing this disease. 

Lime. — Lime, it is usually supposed, is present in sufficient 
quantities in most of our soils. It may be questioned, how- 
ever, whether the common high pine land and scrub land, and 
indeed much of the flat woods and hammock of the interior of 
Florida, might not be benefited by dressings of lime. From 
the superiority of oranges grown on soils which are known to 
be rich in lime it would seem that this is probably a very 
desirable and necessary element for the production of superior 
fruit. The fine, smooth-skinned, and deliciously flavored 
Indian and Halifax River oranges, with their characteristic 
aroma, are grown largely on soils rich in lime from shell 
mounds and coralline and coquina rock. The oranges pro- 
duced in the noted Orange;^ Bend hammock, which are of dis- 
tinctive quality, with delicate, rich aroma, and thin, smooth 
rind, are produced on a soil underlaid by a marl rich in lime. 
Lime soils are in many orange covmtries considered superior 
for orange-growing. 

Dr. A. Stutzer, in his work on the Fertilization of Tropical 
Cultivated Plants, writes: "The orange and citron fruits 
desire a deep, porous, dry soil, rich in lime. If sufficient lime 
is not present the fruit will be thick-skinned and not have a 
fine aroma." It appears also that the effect of abundant lime 
is to hasten to some extent the time of ripening. Fruits 
grown on soils rich in lime appear to color and become suit- 
able for shipping somewhat earlier than those grown on soils 
containing but little lime. To secure a good quality of fruit 
the regular application of lime may be found Very desirable in 
many groves. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — FROST PROTECTION. 155 

Fertilization as Affecting Disease. — Probably the most com- 
mon cause of injury to orange trees is a lack of fertilization, 
yet it is not infrequent for disease to be induced or aggravated 
by excessive or improper fertilization. This may, indeed, be 
of much more importance than we are at present inclined to 
believe. One of the forms of die-back, a common and destruc- 
tive disease of the orange, is quite evidently due to errors in 
fertilization. In other cases the disease appears to be caused 
by planting in improper soil. 



FROST PROTECTION. 

The Riverside Horticultural Club appointed a committee 
consisting of J. H. Reed, E. W. Holmes, E. L. Koethen, E. A. 
Zumbro, and J. H. Martin — all practical orange-growers — to 
investigate the question of orchard protection against frost. 
The committee, after a careful investigation of all the methods 
in use and experimented with, made its report, which was 
adopted, as follows:* 

With the assistance of some fifteen or twenty citizens inter- 
ested in the study of the points involved, a most complete test 
has been made of the many different methods employed to pre- 
vent frost damage. With such a force of competent and impar- 
tial observers, it was possible to secure data of much value in 
forming an estimate of the eflficiency of the various plans made 
use of. Careful comparison was made between those orchards 
where no work was done, and where no direct effect of the fire 
was probable, and those w^here the different methods were being 
tried. As indicated by our partial report at the last meeting 
of the club, these tests were in some particulars eminently 
satisfactory, as showing the way to definite conclusions. 

The exceptionally long period of cold following gave addi- 
tional opportunity to verify the first conclusions reached, and 
subsequent investigations made by ourselves, as well as by 
other citizens who have awakened to the possibility of protect- 
ing their property, strengthened and confirmed the opinion 
formed as the result of the tests already partially reported upon. 

*Riverside Press, February 19, 1898. 



156 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE, 

Some theories are proven to have little practical value, and 
members of your committee have modified their views some- 
what in consequence. No preconceived notions have been 
allowed to stand in the way of a thoroughly practical study of 
the facts as they exist, to the end that the growers may not, for 
the lack of definite knowledge as to the direction their efforts 
should take, neglect reasonable precautions hereafter to insure 
the safety of their crops. These, therefore, are our conclusions: 

First — There is no doubt whatever that the temperature of 
our orchards may be materially raised by the use of dry heat. 

Second — The radiation of the earth's heat can be very consid- 
erably lessened by moist smudges, when these are started early 
enough and are properly managed. 

Third — The possibility of raising the dew-point on one of the 
dry cold nights peculiar to our climate, sufficiently to prevent 
damage, by means of steam-producing apparatus, seems 
impracticable. 

Fourth — Fruit and trees can undoubtedly be saved, even in 
the coldest sections, by covering them with cloth or matting; 
but the expense involved makes this method impossible on the 
part of the ordinary grower. 

Fifth — It is found that the temperature in an old seedling 
grove, or where tall windbreaks afford to smaller fruit trees a 
like protection, is almost invariably one or two degrees 
higher than in exposed orchards in the immediate neighbor- 
hood. This fact seems to thoroughly upset the theory strongly 
held by many intelligent growers that the tall, well-located 
windbreak is a disadvantage; the contrary seeming to be the 
truth. 

Sixth — It is found that the temperature twenty feet above 
the ground is from one to two degrees higher than at the sur- 
face, and that, as a rule, when the cold is severe enough to 
injure the ripest fruit, fifty feet from the ground there is almost 
invariably a temperature above the freezing point of water. 

Prof. Zumbro, who has given special attention to this matter, 
finds that at the height of fifty feet the temperature is from 
five to ten degrees higher than at the surface, when the air is 
not in motion. When there is any considerable breeze it varies 
but little. 

Seventh — Our conclusion is that, all things considered, the 
coal baskets, sufficiently numerous, will prove the most satis- 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA FROST PROTECTION. 157 

factory and effective means of warming the orchards j^et made 
. use of. It is true the oil pots make a far hotter fire, and are 
neither expensive nor difficult to manage, but the deposit of 
lampblack upon tree and fruit resulting from their use con- 
demns this system for general use. 

As to the value of smudging, the members of your com- 
mittee are not so well agreed. Because of less sharply defined 
results, we find it more difficult to come to definite — at least 
uniform — conclusions. But, under certain conditions, we are 
convinced that, properly used, it may be made a valuable 
means of protection. We think this especially true in locali- 
ties where the temperature never falls but little below the 
danger point, and where there are considerable solid areas of 
young orchards exposed. Here it will work well if the protec- 
tion is made general. But where the danger is considerable, 
we think it wise to be prepared to use dry heat, even in 
connection with the smudge. The benefit from smudging is 
probably as much from its protecting fruit and trees from the 
sudden rays of the morning sun after a freezing night as from 
modifying the temperature during the time of danger. 

Experience demonstrates that flooding or running water in 
connection with dry heat or smudging is a valuable adjunct. 
One of the committee which has been testing this matter care- 
fully for three years is disposed to think that the direct benefit 
from running water is overestimated by the majority of grow- 
ers. Its value in putting orchards in condition to withstand 
safely quite severe weather is unquestioned, but the committee 
is inclined to think that entire dependence upon this method 
will occasionally result in serious loss to those who trust to 
this means alone, especially when used in young orchards. 

As to the number of baskets needed when coal is used, we 
find the most decided and satisfactory results have been gained 
where from twenty to fifty coal fires have been used to each 
acre. If intelligently and energetically used, this plan will 
never fail, except when the mercury drops below 24° for a long 
while, and even then it is believed the larger portion of a crop 
may be saved if anything like a general use of such fires be 
secured. The smaller number of fires named has in numerous 
cases, and even when a man was working alone, secured a rise 
of from three to five degrees and saved a crop. Can it be 
doubted that fifty fires per acre used in every orchard would 



158 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

save both trees and crop on the coldest night ever known in 
California's history? 

To equip an orchard with fifty baskets to the acre means an 
outlay of only a little over $5. The fuel to run them one 
night costs from $2.50 to $3. If a crop of Navels upon the trees 
is worth $400, it will pay well to spend in fuel and labor $4 per 
night, or one per cent of the value of the crop, to insure its 
safety. In the orange region of Southern California it is not 
usual to have more than two or three nights in a season 
when the fruit is in danger. But even if, as in the present 
season, the period of cold is more extended, will it not pay to 
expend at least as much as one pays for his irrigating water 
to secure the safe maturing of a crop it has cost him a year's 
labor and heavy expense to produce? 

The conclusion is obvious that we have only to provide for 
the insurance of this sort of property exactly as we would in 
the case of that liable to destruction by fire, to be enabled to 
follow the business of orange and lemon growing with the 
certainty of having perfect fruit to market at the season's end. 

While the practicability of protecting our orchards from 
frosts seems established, the problem of the most economical 
and scientific means of accomplishing this is probably yet to 
be solved. However well the wire baskets may serve us now, 
there doubtless will be improved methods for burning coal, 
and even other material may be found that will serve the pur- 
pose better; and while wet straw seems at present to be the 
most available for smudges, doubtless when the need is madfe 
known, chemists will find some vapor-producing material moip 
compact, efficient, and economical. Hence we recommend that 
the club appoint a permanent committee to continue these 
investigations. 

ROOFING PROTECTION AGAINST FROSTS, AND HEAT 
IN SUMMER. 

After having tried several other methods of protecting trees 
irom frost, none of which proved absolutely safe, the Everest 
Rancho incorporation at Arlington Place, Riverside County, 
decided to roof over a portion of their orange grove. Such 
were the results of the first trial on three acres that the 
company extended it over seventeen acres, shown in the 
accompanying illustrations, made from photographs taken on 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA FROST PROTECTION. 



159 



the spot. The proposition embraced in the covering is to pre- 
vent the warm air from leaving the immediate vicinity of the 
trees at night. During the day the earth and trees become 
warm, but as the night cools the atmosphere the process of 




Roofing over an orange grove at the Everest Rancho, Arlington Place, Riverside 

County. 

radiation sets in and the heat from the earth and the trees is 
carried off, the cold frosty atmosphere taking its place. The 
idea was conceived of covering the orchard with canvas, which 
could be rolled up in the morning and let out at night. One 




Covering shown from beneath. 



acre was covered in this way, but it was found to be too expen- 
sive and unstable, as the canvas would get wet and decay. 
The present method costs about $450 an acre. The fruit borne 
by the trees under this covering has matured perfectly and the 



160 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

covering serves two purposes, i. e., protecting the trees from the 
effects of frost, and from excessive heat in the summer. 

The posts are 3x4 redwood, 18 feet long. The trees are so 
planted that the posts are placed 21 feet 3 inches apart each 
way, setting them 3 feet in the ground, thus allowing about 15 
feet in the clear for height of the trees, which is sufficient for 
most Navel trees. These posts are connected by pieces of 1 x 4 
pine suitably braced, on top of which another strip of 1 x 4 has 
been securely nailed to prevent the whole from swaying side- 
ways with the weight of the cover. This, when placed in 
position, is braced horizontally with braces of 1 x 3 pine, 7 feet 
long. Thus is secured a framework that is quite rigid and on 
which a man may walk freely, provided he has a head clear 
enough to walk on a four-inch strip. 

Over this were stretched galvanized iron wires, diagonally, of 
No. 11 wire, which are securely stapled on top of each post and 
to the horizontal braces. These diagonal wires are stretched 
very tight with iron stretchers, and throw a portion of the 
weight of the cover on to posts directly that would otherwise 
be borne by the pieces of 1x4 pine, 21 feet 3 inches long. 
These diagonal wires are supplemented by wires running across 
the framework at right angles to the direction in which the 
cover is laid. These four wires — two diagonal and two cross 
wires — steady the whole construction and distribute the weight 
more evenly. 

Thus is the framework completed. For the cover Arizona 
laths were used, being the lightest and best for the purpose, 
and were wove on a lath machine into common chicken fencing, 
placing the lath one inch apart and weaving with six wires — 
three double strands. This is made in sections 21 feet 3 inches 
long and rolled up preparatory to being taken to cover. In 
covering the framework four rolls made of four-foot lath and 
one roll of five-foot lath are used, thus filling out the space 
over each tree of 21 feet 3 inches as nearly as is necessary. It 
takes 100 lath to each roll, or 500 to each tree; and as the trees 
are planted 100 to the acre, 50,000 laths are required to the 
acre. This Arizona lath is cheaper than ordinary pine in that 
part of the State. 

The crop of fruit under this covering was of good size, color, 
and quality, and while the construction of the cover could be, 
and no doubt will be, improved upon, it has proved of great 
benefit as built. 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA — QUESTIONS. 161 

LEAF SHELTER AN ADVANTAGE.* 

Old " Sunny Side" has again covered herself with glory. 
Eight consecutive big crops is her record. I had sold five 
carloads before the chilly night of December 29th, and have 
just finished delivering the second lot of five cars on a satis- 
factory cash sale. Since the "chill" I have delivered in bulk 
at the packing-house, and the fruit has packed nearly four 
fifths " fancy," and this fruit, too, was, by special contract with 
the buyer, picked from the outside of the trees where most 
exposed. 

The fact is that my twenty-acre orchard of 1,500 orange trees 
is well prepared to resist chilly weather. The trees are so large, 
so thrifty, and so densely covered outside, that they are like 
so many houses shingled with broad orange leaves clear to the 
ground. The interior spaces under each tree, filled with the 
sun-baked air of the day, bid defiance to "Jack" on a cool 
night, and prevent him getting in his diabolical work before 
another day's sunshine comes along to oust him entirely. I 
have never lost a crop, though of course some of the fruit on 
the outside will sometimes "take cold"; but there is great 
protection in a shelter of thick, broad, healthy, glossy leaves. 



QUESTIONS AFFECTING ORANGE CULTURE. 

During the year 1898 the Horticultural Society of Highlands 
invited its members and citrus-growers having any questions 
regarding any phase of orange culture to send them to the 
Society, for submission to the orange-growers of the State. 
The following were received and answered rf 

Question: Should hardpan within two feet of the surface be 
considered a harrier to the planting of orange trees f 

Prof. E. W. Hilgard, of Berkeley: Yes, if impenetrable 
by roots. 

J. H. Reed, of Riverside: Yes. 

*B. B. Barney, in California Fruit Grower, February 1, 1896. 
t Rei)orted by \V. M. Bristol, chairman of committee. 

11— C 



162 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

H. D. MooRE, of Redlands: Hardpan within two feet of the 
surface will eventually ruin any orchard. Its effects will 
probably be noticed by the third or fourth year. 

Digest of Discussion by the Club: The question doubtless 
refers to the natural hardpan underlying the red mesa soil 
common in California, and not to the artificial hardpan (so 
called) which is formed in orchards by the tramping of horses 
used in cultivating. The latter occurs immediately below the 
cultivated stratum, and is caused by driving over the ground 
too soon after rain or irrigation. The natural hardpan may 
be divided into three classes, namely: gravelly, sandy, and 
clayey hardpan. It is found at varying depths, and runs 
from a few inches to several feet in thickness. Analysis shows 
it to be deficient in nitrogen, but rich in potash and phosphoric 
acid, the same being true of the looser soil found underlying 
it. In many cases it is impervious to either water or roots, 
and consequently marks the downward limit of the soil capable 
of holding moisture or of yielding plant-food to the tree. 

Question: Is it advisable to break up this hardpan, and will 
it stay broken up? 

Prof. Hilgard: Yes, to both. 

Mr. Reed: Other conditions being markedly favorable, yes. 
If well done it will stay broken up. 

Mr. Moore: If an orchard is already planted in such soil, 
it would be advisaljle to put in three or four cartridges at equal 
distances around the trees. The soil has been found to pack 
down hard again in three years after blasting. 

C. E. Mosher, of Pasadena: Yes. Hardpan once broken 
up will not form again. 

The Club: Yes, if the stratum is not too thick. The grav- 
elly hardpan, which is probably the hardest for roots or water 
to penetrate, is the most easily and permanently broken up. 

Question: What is the best method of blasting in such cases, 
and what is the expense? 

Prof. Hilgard: Bore into the hardpan and use one-half 
pound of No. 2 giant powder in each hole. 

Mr. Reed: Giant powder. Expense depends on condition of 
hardpan. 

Mr. Mosher: I took the contract for blasting the hardpan 



THE ORANGE IN CALIFORNIA QUESTIONS. 163 

on seven acres of land near Raymond Hill, South Pasadena, 
at 15 cents per hole, and cleared $5 a day at it. The top soil 
was 2^ feet thick, the hardpan 3 feet. I dug the holes to hard- 
pan, then with a l|-inch wood bit welded onto a 5-foot shank 
I bored down 20 inches into it, put in one stick of No. 2 giant 
powder, tamping it with fine earth. It blew a hole clear through 
the hardpan, the hole afterward being cleaned out and filled 
with top soil. 

The Club: The foregoing replies were indorsed. No. 2 
giant powder is preferable to No. 1, because its slower action 
cracks and shakes the hardpan more thoroughly. Good results 
have been obtained in orchards already set, by putting one stick 
of powder directly under the tree. It is important that the 
charge be in the hardpan — not under it. If exploded below the 
hardpan its force is expended in making a cavity there without 
breaking up the overlying stratum. It is well to clean out 
the hole and fill with sand, thus insuring the free penetration 
of water to the substratum. Of course in putting the blast 
directly under the tree, the hole must be made slanting. Some 
roots are necessarily broken, but the benefits are largely in the 
majority. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE XIV, 




Fruit and Branch— Primal Type. 
(^Citrus limonuni vulgaris.) 



THE LEMON INDUSTRY. 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA. 165 

THE LEMON. 

Citrus medica limonum, Risso. 



SEEDLINGS.— J7i/;;oco<2/^ becoming woodj', erect, terete, finely pubescent, 
wiry, pale green, 2.3-2.9 cm. long. 

Cotyledons two, rarely three, mostly alternate, fleshy, oblong, obtuse, pale 
green, finely pubescent, sessile or subsessile, somewhat notched at the base. 

Stem woody, erect, terete, tinely pubescent, wiry ; first internode variable, 
1.6-2.3 cm. long; second, 2 mm. ; third, 3 mm. ; fourth, 7.5 mm. 

Leaves compound, cauline, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate, glabrous, deep 
green, shining, pubescent on the nerves beneath when young, permeated 
with translucent glands, doubly crenulate, emarginate; petioles subpu- 
bescent, winged, [sometimes wingless,] with a prominent midrib, and taper- 
ing toward the base. 

Nos. 1 and 2 unifoliate, frequently also Nos. 3 and 4. All alternate at 
greater or less distances from each other, or in pairs, or all four verticillate, 
ovate, obtuse, emarginate, articulated at the top of their petioles, or the 
lowest pair articulate at the base onlJ^ 

Nos. 3 and 4 frequently digitately trifoliate, the terminal leaflet being 
lanceolate-elliptic, attenuate at the base ; the lateral leaflets arise by segmen- 
tation from the terminal one. 

No. 4. In some instances five-foliolate ; the rachis between the basal and 
next pair of leaflets winged and tapering tosvard the base in the same way as 
the primary petiole ; leaflets sessile, lanceolate-elliptic, emarginate, minutely 
and doubly crenulate, smaller than the leaflets of unfoliate leaves. — Sir 
John Lvbbock, " Contributions to our Knowledge of Seedlings," Vol. I, 1892. 

The flower of the lemon is of medium size, with a reddish 
tint outside, but white within. Fruit pale yellow, generally 
oval, ending in a nipple-like point, seldom round or pyriform. 
The skin is smooth, about the thickness of that of the orange, 
becoming greatly reduced, thin, pliable, and leathery to the 
touch after being stored away, styled "curing." 

The lemon is not so hardy a tree as the orange and is more 
susceptible to frost. While this is true, it is also true that 
it does not require so high a temperature to bring out its best 
qualities, which it will attain on the coast, where the orange is 
inferior. The lemon is a prolific tree, bearing more fruit than 
the orange and requiring more water; but the treatment of the 
tree in the matter of planting, cultivating, etc., except pruning, 
is the same as that required by the orange, and the rules laid 
down for the latter apply equally to the former. 



166 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

The lemon has received less attention in California than the 
orange, owing partly to the extra care required in its prepara- 
tion for market, and partly to the impression that it was not 
so profitable a fruit to grow. Of late years, however, much 
more attention has been given to lemon culture, and the area 
adapted to lemon growth has been widened. It was thought 
that this fruit would flourish only in a few favored nooks in 
the citrus section, but experience has proved that there are 
numerous places in the higher lands — the foothills and mesas — 
of the southern and central counties where the lemon will 
flourish. The result of this has been a great impetus in lemon 
planting in San Diego, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, 
Los Angeles, Ventura, Santa Barbara, and Tulare counties. 
This has been aided, too, by the fear that the very extensive 
planting of oranges would result in the reducing of profits in 
orange-growing. Improved methods of handling and curing 
the lemon — the outcome of years of experiments — have resulted 
in securing a fruit which commands a good price and competes 
with the imported article, making lemon-growing profitable. 
These facts have turned the attention of planters toward the 
lemon, and it is probable that this fruit will steadily advance 
in popularity until it reaches a place in our fruit exportations 
beside that of the orange. 

VARIETIES. 

The varieties of the lemon are not as numerous as those of 
the orange. While many varieties have been introduced, some 
of our choicest have originated here. The common seedling, of 
poor shipping and keeping qualities, that used to be met with 
in almost every orchard in the State, has been discarded, and 
in its place stand varieties which possess exceedingly high 
merit. The fruit of the varieties now grown is not over-large, 
but of a uniform medium size, good keepers, with a sweet rind 
and a delicious, strong acid. 

Lisbon. — Fruit of medium size, fine grain, sweet rind, acid 
strong, few seeds, an excellent keeper. Grows very uniformly 
on the tree, and ripens evenly. The tree is a strong grower, 
very prolific, thorny, but thorns decrease as the trees grow 
older. Imported from Portugal. 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



167 



Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society, 
at Covina, in 1898, says: "The advantages claimed for the 
Lisbon are that it bears its fruit uniformly all through the 
tree. But the disadvantage is that the tree is thickly stud- 
ded with long, sharp thorns, which, when the branches are 
waved by the winds, puncture much of the fruit, spoiling it 
for the market, especially the Eastern market. Another objec- 
tion is that it does not come into bearing until it is from seven 
to ten years in orchard, and bears only one crop a year." 

Villa Franca. — Fruit oblong, slightly pointed at the blos- 
som end, rind thin, without any trace of bitterness, acid strong. 




Cross-sections of ViUa Franca Lemon (cured specimens)— natural size. 

juic}^, nearly seedless. Tree almost thornless, branches spread- 
ing and somewhat drooping, foliage very abundant, which pro- 
tects the fruit from scorching. The tree is a strong grower and 
less susceptible to cold than most varieties. Imported from 
Europe. 

Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society, 
^ Covina, in 1898, says: "The advantages claimed for the 
Villa Franca are that it makes a more compact tree and bears 
its fruit more uniformly over the entire tree; but, from my 
experience, it requires at least one year longer to come into 
bearing, and the fruits on young trees are shorter when they 
have the requisite diameter for picking than either the Eureka 
or the Lisbon." 



168 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

Acme (syn., "Sweet Rind," "Hale's Seedling"). — This is an 
old established variety ; originated at Los Angeles. Resembles 
the Lisbon in many of its characteristics, so much so that it 
has been confounded with it. The fruit is similar to the Lisbon, 
grows uniformly, of medium size, strong acid, with a sweet 
rind; a good keeper. The tree is a more upright grower than 
the Lisbon, has fewer thorns, and is of a much less spreading 
habit. 

Eureka. — Fruit medium size, sweet, smooth, glossy rind, 
and an excellent keeper. Acid strong and most pleasant, with 
very few seeds. Tree semi-dwarf, sparse foliage, inclined to 
bear at the extremities of the branches, and endangering the 
fruit to sunburn. A remarkable lemon. Originated at Los 
Angeles. 

Dr. J. H. Needham, in an essay before Pomological Society, 
at Covina, in 1898, says: "The advantages of the Eureka are 
its comparative freedom from thorns, its tendency to early 
bearing, and, when properly trained, to enormous crops when 
it comes into full bearing, by its continuous blooming and 
setting of lemons all the year, especially in sections that are 
comparatively free from frost. The objections are its tendency 
to set its fruit on the tips of the branches, and the inclination 
to grow long canes with but few laterals, and to drop its leaves 
on the long canes or branches, thus leaving the limbs and 
fruit too much exposed to the hot rays of the sun in the heated 
term of summer. But this can be remedied by proper pruning 
from the time the tree is one or not more than two years in 
the orchard, being careful to keep off all sucker growth, and 
cutting back the long branches to not more than twelve to 
eighteen inches, in the spring and fall; June and October being 
a fair division of the growth of the year. Always cut away 
the larger of the two or three branches that have started near 
where the branch was pruned the previous time, as the bold, 
rapid growers will only make a wood growth, while the smaller 
twigs or branches will form the fruit spurs, which bud, bloonr, 
and bear the fruit." 

Genoa. — Fruit medium size, oval, sweet rind, and nearly 
seedless; a good keeper. Tree of a dwarf habit and thornless. 
This is one of the best lemons grown in the State. 

Asiatic — Fruit medium size, oval, thin rind, with an agree- 
able strong acid. Tree semi-dwarf, thornless. 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA VARIETIES. 169 

Bonnie Brae. — A vigorous growing tree, quite thorny, and 
with distinct foliage. The fruit, which resembles a lime in 
appearance, is of a medium size, ribbed, and with exceedingly- 
thin rind. 

Sicily. — Fruit large and coarse; keeps only with extreme 
care; inferior. 

Agnes. — Fruit medium size, sweet rind, pulp very fine, with 
strong acid, and few seeds. Thorns few, short and blunt. Tree 
a rapid grower, medium dwarf, and drooping in character. 

Olivia. — Fruit medium size, of good quality, acid strong. 
Tree a thrifty grower and a good bearer; thorny. 

" Royal Messina." — Introduced from Florida, under the 
name of Sicily, but there being numerous varieties under this 
name, " Royal Messina " was applied to it, identifying the same 
with one grown in Florida by that name. It is a choice 
lemon of medium size, seedless, strong acid, skin thin, pliable, 
and an excellent keeper. Tree nearly free from thorns, strong 
in growth, and of dark, elegant foliage. 

Garcelon's Knobby. — Fruit medium size; when cured, very 
thin rind, juicy. Tree a good grower and prolific. 

BouTON. — Fruit medium size, sweet rind when cured, very 
seedy. Tree very thorny; inferior. 

Sweet Rind. — Fruit very large; tree very thorny; inferior. 

Milan.* — Fruit medium size; an exceptionally fine lemon. 

California Sicily. — Name applied to common seedling 
lemons. 

Chinese. — Fruit large, the size of a citron, which it resembles. 
Fruit of little commercial value, except the peel, which is used 
for preserving purposes. Tree is of a dwarf habit — a bush. In 
former years it was extensively used as a stock, but being 
subject to the gum disease and unable to support the growth of 
the orange and lemon, it has been discarded. 

Ever-Bearing.* — Fruit large and coarse. Decreases in size 
as the tree grows older. 

Sicilian.* — A lemon of superior quality. 

Lamb.* — Fruit medium; strong acid. 

Bijou.* — Fruit medium and a good keeper. 

Variegated. — The leaves are mottled with white; ornamental. 

Napoleon. —Fruit medium size, thin rind, oblong. A pro- 
lific bearer. 



* Florida varieties; some have been introduced into California. 



170 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



August.* — Fruit medium size, elongated, a good shipper. 
Tree a rapid grower. 

Belair Premium.* — Fruit medium size, without bitterness. 
Tree a strong grower and thrifty. Considered the best variety 
grown in Florida. 

French Seedling.* — Fruit quite small, sweet rind, and a 
strong acid. Tree a strong grower, almost thornless. 

French, or Florida.* — Rough; used as a stock. 

French Seedling.* — Said to be very good. 

Other Varieties — 



Valentina* 


Genoese 


Gastilian 


Bracy* 


Leghorn* 


Garden Lemon 


Royal 


Imperial* 


Neapolitan* 


(inferior) 


Candian 


Long* 


Makay* 


Mela Rosa 


Ohio 


Naples* 


Meranda* 


Paradise 


Praos 


Sweet Brazilian* 


Malta* 


Communis 


Messina* 


Tuberculata* 


"Waring's Seed- 


Suacco 


Roman 


"Waring's Seedless* 


ling* 


Melaroce 


St. Jerome 





I The Sweet, or Bergamot, Lemon. 

Citrus limonuvi, var. Dulcis, Risso. 

This species of the citrus family has been grown in a small 
way in dooryards and gardens by early settlers, and must have 
had its origin, or was introduced, at a very early period. It 
has never assumed much importance in the markets, and for 
this reason has only been grown to a very limited extent. The 
flowers are pure white, slightly tinged with purple on the out- 
side and white within. The leaves are large, ovate roundish, 
serrated; petioles subulate, very smooth and aromatic. The 
fruit resembles the lemon in appearance, but is globose, with a 
blunt, nipple-like protuberance at the blossom end, a firm rind, 
sweet pulp, and a non-aromatic juice. 

The tree is a prolific bearer, is easily grown from cuttings, 
and is also worked on orange stocks or vice versa. The tree 
requires the same treatment and conditions for its growth as 
the lemon, and on its own root is very much subject to the 
attacks of gum disease. There are various types grown, and 
while some possess marked qualities, perhaps owing to the 
climatic conditions, soil, etc., none have been so far classed as 
distinctive varieties. 



*Florida varieties; some have been introduced into California. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE XV. 




Lisbon— Cross-sections— Natural size. 



i:.. 




Villa Franca— Slightly reduced. 



THE LEMON INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE XVI. 




Bonnie Brae— Cross-section— Natural size. Bonnie Brae— Cross-section, showing seed 

(Cured specimen.) variation and thickness of rind. (Uncured.) 



THE LEMON INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE XVII. 





Eureka— Natural size. 




Eureka— Cross-sections— Natural si/t 




Genoa— Natural size. 



THE LEMON INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



' PLATE XVIII. 




Genoa — Cross-sections — Nfltnyal sIzp. 




'Royal Messina"— Natural size. 




KoYAL Messina"— Cross-sections— Natural 



THE LEMON INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE XIX. 




-N) 



Milan — Natural size. 




Milan— Cross-sections— Natural size. 







Sicily— Cnrefi specimen— Natural size. 



THE LEMON INDUSTRY— VARIETIES. 



176 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



PRUNING THE LEMON. 

"How shall we prune, and when shall we do it?" I.C.Wood, 
of Ontario, Cal., an experienced lemon-grower, answered the 
question before the Southern California Pomological Society, 
as follows: 

"If the tree is one year old, I would cut it to about three 
and one half feet high; if older, possibly higher, according to 
strength of plant. Then let it branch from near the ground, 
say one to one and a half feet. As soon as the young shoots 
are strong enough, select from four to six or more of the best 
of them; see that they are evenly distributed on every side of 




Lemon orchard pruned high, without cutting back the upper shoots, which 
eontinuaUy break by the weight of the fruit. 

the stem and at different heights from the ground; allow the 
uppermost to form the leader, which should be encouraged 
from year to year to continue as a leader, so as to avoid as far 
as possible decided forks. 

"At the end of first year prune-in all side shoots and top 
according to the amount of wood made — usually one half will 
be about right for the lower branches, and more severe for the 
upper ones. The object is to shape the tree and keep it in the 
form of a letter "A," limbed right from the ground or nearly 
so. In pruning, do not cut at random, especially at this 
stage, but see which way you want the upper buds to grow, as 
the upper bud usually makes the leader which we want to 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 177 

encourage to go upward and not outward, as we are laying a 
foundation for a heavy crop of fruit and we want to keep that 
crop protected as much as possible by a mass of foliage, and 
equally distributed through the tree and close to the stronger 
or main branches. The object is to make the tree carry a full 
crop, and that, too, without props or ropes, which are expensive, 
take time and labor to put in place, besides being unsightly 
and in the way. Moreover, the tree will be so compact in its 
make-up that should we be located where subject to winds, the 
resisting power of the tree will be much greater and losses of 
fruit and breakage of branches very much lessened. The crop 
of fruit will be found very largely on the inside of the tree, 
insuring less sunburn or that unpleasant deep yellow color 
on the side exposed, as is so general when the crop is allowed 
to bear on the outside and at the extremities of the branches. 
"In this section (Ontario) there is a half-dormant season 
during the months of February, March, and a part of April, 
which I would consider the proper time for making our heavy 
cutting. If it becomes necessary at any time, which may be 
the case with young and thrifty trees not yet in bearing, I have 
before recommended pruning the lighter wood at the time of 
picking the fruit, and experience has taught me that there is no 
time when we can do pruning so effectually. When this method 
is followed we invariably find a large amount of the fruit on 
the inside of the tree, and on small, willow-like branches. 
When the stronger growth has been kept in check, these smaller 
branches are encouraged and live on, because they receive a 
fair proportion of the tree sap, which would otherwise go to the 
stronger parts, and if allowed, the smaller shoots, especially on 
the inside, would die, and the inside of the tree would become 
a scraggy mass of small, dry branches." 

* " The idea of growing as large a tree as possible in three or 
four years, or until bearing age, must be reversed; must be done 
by cutting back the tree when one year old and keeping it cut 
back and thinned out until the growth is controlled. The 
wood must never be cut on its first growth; let it become hard, 
not less than two growths old. The older the wood the more 
inclined to small fruit growth when cut back. The length to 
leave depends altogether on size of wood and location of 

* J. W. Scott, in Covina Argus, October, 1895. 

12c 



178 STATE BOAKD OF HORTICULTURE. 

branches; but seldom leave more than eight inches, and often 
only one or two buds. The one great mistake made by some 
in cutting back heavily is to shear off the crown of the tree 
year after year, causing it to grow thicker and thicker each 
year, sacrificing all of the lateral fruit growth and the fruit 
growth inside the tree. 

"In cutting trees three years old and upward, one must 
understand the nature of the tree especially, or he will leave 
too much foundation for new growth. After the new wood is 
dormant it should be thinned out, leaving plenty of lateral and 
inside growth, but taking out everything from the top that has 
a tendency to shoot upward, especially large wood. The idea 
is to keep the top down and work for a lateral growth, always 
keeping out suckers and large young wood. Above all do not 
try to form any more branches by utilizing a sucker to fill in a 
vacancy; better let time fill it up with the old wood, or grub out 
the tree and put in a new one. 

" During pruning, use very little water, if any, until the first 
growth is dormant. I believe there is a great mistake made 
in watering lemon trees at just the wrong time. Until they 
are in full bearing they do not require much water. I think 
the majority of growers will agree with me that the time to 
water the lemon tree is when dormant; then a good, healthy 
stock of wood is secured; but it requires more labor keeping out 
suckers. I think the time will come when lemon-growers in 
irrigation districts will build their own private reservoirs that 
they may be able to use the water when needed. I have made 
the assertion that a lemon tree needs more water than the 
orange, and it is very evident, for the reiason that when a lemon 
tree comes into bearing it is capable of producing, at the same 
age and with the same care, two or three times as much fruit 
as the orange, and is setting fruit all through the year." 

G. W. Garcelon, a pioneer lemon-grower of Riverside, says: 
"After the tree is set, let it grow. As soon as suckers appear, 
remove them, although some growers leave them for a time to 
protect the trunk of the tree from the sun. Rather burlap the 
trunks and let the growth come from the top, which will con- 
stitute two thirds of the tree. Allow all top growtn to remain, 
except shortening-in any too luxuriant branches, or winds will 
prune for you, and more than is desirable. Now this is all 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA PRUNING. 179 

that is necessary", except annually to clean out any wood in 
the tree which has got through being useful to the tree, always, 
remembering that the best fruit of the lemon comes from the 
inside of the tree and nearest the ground," 

The lemon tree being a strong and vigorous plant, requires 
liberal irrigation and, above all, judicious pruning, for almost 
before a person is aware of it, long straggling branches will 
hinder cultivation, and must be cut back, thereby entailing an 
absolute waste and greatly lessening the vitality of the tree. 
To prevent this waste and loss, the ends of the branches 
should be pinched off at the proper time, and with such dis- 
cretion as will result in forming a symmetrical and well- 
balanced top. Great care should also be taken in thinning 
out the small and weak branches, so as to afifbrd circulation 
and to allow sunshine to penetrate. Pinching off the ends of the 
limbs will cause them to throw out spurs, thereby bringing the 
fruit nearer the body of the tree. 

*"We have learned from observation that the lemon tree 
produces its best fruit on twigs or small branches in the interior 
of the tree. To get any considerable quantity of such twigs we 
must cut back the branches, for the habit of the tree is to send 
out long shoots that fruit on the end, often leaving two or three 
feet without a break. The fruit that grows on these branches 
is largely culls. If the branches are properly cut back, the 
body of the tree will probably fill up with fine wood, which 
will furnish bearing surface for all the fruit that the tree can 
properly mature. 

"Two difficulties have confronted us as growers: one, that 
much of our fruit does not attain the proper size before we are 
obliged to pick it in order to prevent its deteriorating in quality; 
and the other, that our crop is ready to gather too late for one 
market and too early for another, or during the early winter 
months. The former of these difficulties can probably be largely 
overcome, and the latter by somewhat reducing the bearing 
surface of the tree and bringing the fruit nearer to the source of 
supply. All experiments along this line go to show that both 
the grade and size of the lemon are improved by the process. 
Many lemons, from being too small or too highly colored before 
picking, go into the second grade or culls that otherwise should 

* J. W. Freeman, in " Pacific Rural Press," A\>rU 25, 1897. 



180 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

go into the first or second grade. One can easily see that it pays 
better to grow twelve boxes of lemons at $1,25 per box than to 
grow fifteen boxes of second grade at $1, or any number of culls 
for nothing, as the cost per box is the same in each case. 

"It is thought by some that by certain methods of pruning 
the habits of the lemon tree can be so changed that from bear- 
ing the bulk of its fi'uit in the fall and early winter it may be 
made to bear in the summer. It would seem that in certain 
localities that is the habit of the tree, but we speak of this as 
we know it; that to our minds is unquestionable. The possi- 
bility of it lies, of course, in the fact that the tree is a continu- 
ous bearer; but supposing that it could be done, the thing of 
itself is of doubtful benefit, especially in localities subject to 
injury by frost. The so-called summer crop is on the trees 
during the winter months, and if it passes through safely, is 
just the thing to be desired. Until we can devise some method 
of protection (from the elements, we mean), it would seem 
that the wisest course will be to do what we can to hasten the 
time of maturity of our fall crop to catch as much of the early 
market as possible, and to hold the balance of our crop over 
until spring, if necessary. This fruit is of much better keeping 
quality than the summer crop. 

" If this method is adopted it will be much better to begin 
with the trees when they are young; but with old trees, the 
sooner the better. Some have the practice of rounding up their 
trees like a billiard ball, irrespective of what may be the 
length of the limbs in the body of the tree. This seems to us 
to be a mistake, as it will leave the trees with too dense a growth 
of foliage. Others cut them off like a billiard table. This is 
open to the same objection, besides taking from the tree much 
wood that is already in the place desired. Each limb should 
be treated by itself and cut back to within six or eight inches 
of the fork ; when limbs spring from this, instead of cutting 
each one off at the same distance, they should be thinned out 
to two or three, cutting the surplus shoots right back to the 
branch. It may be necessary to reduce the surface still further 
each year by cutting out a portion of the bearing wood, so that 
each limb shall not carry more fruit than it can mature. We 
can show trees treated in this way that are now one mass 
of bloom right through the whole body of the tree, so that one 
could scarcely put his hand in without touching a blossom. 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 



181 



This may in time need thinning out, but that is an easy- 
matter. 

"This may seem like heroic work, and many dislike to 
undertake it, though they may be convinced that it will pay 
in the end. It does not mean the total loss of a year's crop by 
any means. The yield will not be so large, it is true, but the 
actual returns ma}' not be far behind. Let me call your atten- 
tion to the saving that will be effected in the cost of picking. 
To go into the top of a large tree five or six times a year for a 
half box of lemons is an expensive business and increases the 
cost of picking to almost more than the actual value of the fruit. 
By this method of 
pruning, the fruit 
will be kept within 
easy reach. 

" To get the best 
results from this 
system of pruning 
the work must be 
followed up and all 
useless growth re- 
moved while the 
process will shock 
neither the feelings 
of the grower nor 
the sensibilities of 
the tree. 

" Let me say here 
that the grove that 

yielded the largest returns in this section seems to me to have 
been pruned nearly in line with these suggestions. By a com- 
mon-sense method of pruning, lemon trees are gotten into such 
shape that the wind causes less damage to fruit and tree, and 
the branches are not broken if overburdened with fruit. Props 
and twenty-foot ladders are rendered unnecessary, the cost of 
picking is reduced from one third to one half, the quality of 
the fruit is materially improved, the returns are largely aug- 
mented, and the grower made correspondingly happy." 




A low-pruned tree headed back, and supporting a large 
quantity of lemons. 



182 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

*"Head the tree about two and a half feet from the ground: 
keep it shortened-in for three or four years, forcing a thick, 
stocky basis for after-growth. The tree by this time is bear- 
ing freely, and the fruit will pull or bend down the long shoots, 
which will then put up or throw out small fruit-bearing timber 
all along the upper side of the drooping limb. I think this 
preferable to a continuous shortening of all long growth. A 
dense, shady tree is what is wanted, since the denser the shade 
the more symmetrical and smoother the fruit will be. Limbs 
that reach to and lie upon the ground may from time to time, 
as needed, be tipped off." 

THE BARONIO METHOD OF PRUNING THE LEMON. 

The so-called "Baronio Method" of pruning the lemon takes 
its name from A. C. Baronio, an Italian gentleman who 
recently introduced it into some orchards at La Mesa, San 
Diego County, and who is now a resident of that locality. 
While this method of pruning is not new, it is practically new 
as applied to the lemon in this State. Gallesio, in his treatise 
on the citrus family, written nearly a century ago, mentions 
"the lemon of Genoa as a vigorous tree which will also extend 
itself en espalier (on a trellis) and bear an abundance of fruit." 
He also mentions other varieties "that will not submit to be 
trained en espalier.^' This system partakes of the principles laid 
down by Du Breuil, Barry, and Downing in the Espalier and 
Cordon systems of pruning long in vogue, but applied to decid- 
uous trees. Mr. Baronio claims that the present method as 
practiced by him on the lemon is the outcome of a series of 
years of personal tests and practical experience as a ma,tter of 
study, which led him to the conclusion that it is preeminently 
suited to the lemon, especially in various sections in the south- 
ern part of the State. Whether this method, and others that 
have come into general use of late, will ever be pronounced 
eminently successful, time can only determine. Suffice it to 
say, however, that they are much believed in and are applied 
in many orchards. The method is described as follows by 
A. C. Baronio: 

The method of pruning the lemon as practiced by me, 
although having been mistaken for the old vase, or the "tronco 

*Dr. W. B. Wall, an extensive lemon-grower of Tustin, before Southern 
California Pomological Society, June, 1896. 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 183 

rovesciato" form of the Italians, is entirely different, because 
it brings the tree under such control as is not to be obtained 
by any other method. It really aims at producing a very low, 
wide-open, standard tree, possessing all the merits of an espalier 
with none of its drawbacks. 

When once the tree has been brought under subjection, every 
part of it is kept within easy reach of an ordinary man stand- 
ing on the ground, the structure strong enough to carry a great 
weight of fruit and capable of standing undisturbed by wind 
and weather. The fruit is of superior quality, free from culls, 
the succession of crops regulated, and the fruit-bearing surface 





Lemon oixliard of T. F. Jones, at La Mesa, cut back by Mr. Baronio in July, 1898. 
Photo taken October 30, 1899. 

can be enlarged and directed at will as the tree acquires age 
and strength, so that it is a question of laying the foundation 
for a permanent structure, which may be enlarged for an indefi- 
nite time. Of course it necessitates an entire reconstruction 
(unless so raised from the beginning) in order to lay the foun- 
dation for such a lasting and progressively profitable tree, which 
can not be done by a single operation. I have emphatically 
warned those who may be enticed by some of the half-and-half 
attempts which have sprung up since as new systems and which 
find favor in some quarters as a happy compromise on what 
would seem to be too radical a reform. But these are merely 
makeshifts or bad imitations likely to lead to temporary 
encouragement and ultimate disappointment, through lack of 
knowledge and experience in the proper application of vital 



184 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

principles. Instead of the pruner being able to control the 
tree, it will be found that the tree is master of the situation, 
growing its own way without proper foundation. The lemon tree 
is either the most tractable or the most obstinate of servants, 
but the choice rests with the intelligence of its master. The 
great object in view is to grow lemons for " profit," which must 
be progressive as the age and strength of the tree advance, 
always with due regard to its future life and well-being. The 
method is based on well-formulated physiological principles, 
of which the following are the most important: 

(a) A tree is most profitable when the flow of sap is evenly 
distributed over all its surface, each branch maintained prop- 
erly covered with elaborated growth all along from its base 
extending outward in methodical form; and when it is held 
under absolute control so that the root shall always be capable 
of feeding the whole top, which is kept within easy reach from 
the ground. 

(6) The sap circulates faster through a shoot running 
straight up in the air than through a branch going out in a 
lateral direction. 

(c) There is little or no elaboration along the length of a 
straight shoot until the top is reached. 

{d) There is a larger amount of elaboration along a branch 
in proportion as it goes out in a lateral direction. 

{e) There can be no fruitfulness without elaboration; there- 
fore, 

(/) A lateral branch is more fruitful than an upright one. 

(g) If a young, vigorous shoot (commonly called a sucker) 
running straight up is allowed to persist on a branch, it will 
draw most of the sap and tend to starve the other growth below. 

(A) A branch may be built slightly crooked and strong in 
short sections made up of wood of different ages, and so pruned 
thai, a rush of sap never being permitted, it is forced to elabo- 
rate a lot of small fruiting growth all along its length. 

(i) Fruitfulness and excellence are the results of a slow but 
steady circulation. 

(j) An over-accelerated circulation tends to foster unneces- 
sarily vigorous or rank wood formation. 

{k) A tree must never be permitted at the top to outgrow its 
root-system, but allowed only sufficient wood formation to keep 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 



Ig5 



it growing, and all the fruit compatible with its age and 
strength. 

(l) Branches should never be so crowded as to preclude the 
free admission of light and air between them. 

{m) In order that a tree might have the sap evenly distrib- 
uted, its main branches must be of equal size and run out at 
similar angles. 

[n) A limb Avhich branches off at an acute angle is liable to 
split at the fork. 





^. 


\ 

r: ... «e 


^^\ 


■f 


a / ^ '^1 T?^ 


"^ \ 






*^ ^. _3* 




^ 1 ^;:^f^ 


-r-f 




^^ 






'N* ^ >.'«V 


.<H(i 


-^m^ 





Fig. 1— Baronio method of pruiiing the lemon. (From a sketch by G. P. Hall, of 

San Diego.) 

(o) A limb which branches off at a blunt angle is not liable 
to split. 

(p) A limb (like a chain) is no stronger than its weakest 
point, and therefore there must be no weak points about it, 

{q) The strongest points of a limb must commence at its 
base. 

(r) Foundation branches can never be built too strong. 

(s) Limbs seldom break down by mere weight, but mostly 
by vibration, which brings all the strain on the weakest point 
at the fork. 



1§6 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



(i) Main branches should be perfectly stifi', not affected by 
any vibration whatever. 

It is impossible, in a short article like this, to do full justice 
to the system, or even attempt to partly explain it in detail. 
A few hours with me in the field will do more than can be 
attempted here on paper, especially since I am willing and 
capable of explaining everything about it. The method is 




Fig. 2 — Baronio method of pruning the lemon. (From a sketch 
by G. P. Hall, of San Diego.) 

shown in the accompanying illustrations, made from sketches 
and photographs taken on the spot. 

Figs. 1, 2, and 3 represent three rather extreme cases of 
straggling Eurekas taken immediately after the first operation. 
With the center leader, which probably carried a top to the 
height of about ten feet, cut out so that little if anything is left, 
any one with a timid heart who did not know any better would 
certainly think it impossible to get anything like a tree back 
again, but it is astonishing how quickly an entirely new and 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA PRCNING. 187 

better structure is brought into existence. First of all, by the 
removal of the great leverage which the high top exercised on 
the root, this at once gets a chance to obtain a firmer hold of 
the ground; the tree puts forth a new effort, and by a much 
more vigorous growth and healthier foliage, which act as new 
lungs to it, a correspondingly increased activity goes on under 
ground, forcing the formation of fresh rootlets, the trunk begins 
to thicken in proportion, and so an altogether more satisfactory 
condition of things is established. The great necessity for a 
good and strong constitution is a proportionately large stem 
from the base up, since a tree, like a man, of a strong consti- 
tution can stand more than a cripple. Now, fixing our attention 




Fig. ;>— Baronlo method of pruning the lemon. (From a sketch by G. P Hall, 
of San Diego.) 

on Fig. 1 , according to my plan the tree is branched too high, for 1 
consider sixteen inches the best height, and if more it should not 
exceed two feet: it will therefore be noticed that on the stem about 
a foot below the first branch two suckers are already started, the 
intention being to let them run straight up, like the one shown 
in Fig. 2, then arch them over as seen in Fig. 3. Observe how 
the two suckers have been intentionally selected not to be 
exactly opposite, one about four inches below the other, this 
being essential to form strong, independent branches. It would 
require a great number of diagrams and a too lengthy 
description to attempt an explanation of the process whereby 
the perfect conditions of principle are secured. How weak 



190 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

limbs are made strong enough to overtake those which are 
strong ah-eady, and how new ones are raised at any desired 
position, may be seen in the various orchards of Mr. G. 0. 
Hilton, and on the "Anna Belle" ranch of Mr. T. F. Jones, all 
of which are situated in the "Lemon Villa" tract of the San 
Diego mesa, where new limbs from one and a half to two 
inches thick have been raised in less than two years, notwith- 
standing the exceptionally dry seasons. 

When the necessary well-placed limbs have been obtained, 
the most eligible ones are selected for structural purposes 
and future fruit, whereas the others are reserved for present 
fruit only. 

The same remarks apply to Fig. 2 ; and as to Fig. 3, 
although at present it looks to be the most unlikely thing out 
of which to evolve a good tree, it will nevertheless make the 
best structure and get into shape quicker than either of the 
other two. All that is wanted to make it perfect would be to 
have the two branches right and left in the picture not located 
so nearly opposite to each other. 

On each of these three arched branches two suckers are 
allowed to run, say one about one foot and the other sixteen 
inches from the trunk (all other growth being suppressed), 
and when properly matured these suckers are similarly arched, 
one to the right and one to the left of the respective original 
three branches, which by this time will be set into position and 
may therefore be shortened in, leaving to each a sufficiently 
long projecting stub to which the corresponding newly arched 
suck'ers may, be fastened, and thus no longer obstruct the 
ground below. There will then be three main branches, each 
subdivided into two secondary branches, giving six structural 
points around a circle; and by a succession of similar opera- 
tions these are in due time doubled to make twelve, and so on, 
always remembering to leave sufficient space between each of 
these fan-like main branches so as to allow a man to crawl 
through them and get into the middle of the tree to command 
the inside surface as far as he can reach. 

Everything, in fact, is reduced to a perfect system, rendering 
the work a pleasure rather than a toil. 

Plates XX and XXI commend themselves, but bere the 
structural frame is not visible at all, or the effect would prob- 
ably be as startling as in the three cases discussed above. Of 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 191 

course, each tree being a separate proposition in itself, it is 
needless to say that where there is found already a tolerably 
good supply of well-placed branches, an opportunity is offered 
for an almost immediate symmetrical appearance. But this 
ambition must not be too greatly encouraged to the detriment 
of solidity, for it is easier and quicker to build a proper branch 
anew than to patch up an old one. To know what to remove 
and what to leave is an art to be acquired only by practice. 

OPEN-CENTER PRUNING OF THE LEMON.* 

(Modified from tlie Baronio Method.) 

In the early days of citrus culture in California many lemon- 
growers did not believe in pruning. At the present time there 
may be a few who still cling to the idea that nature should be 
let alone; but nearly all observant growers have been forced, 
by the logic of facts, to the conclusion that the lemon tree, in 
all its varieties, needs pruning, more or less severe, to bring 
about the best results. 

While the untrained tree grows rapidly and produces heavy 
crops, the fruit runs largely to culls, and often fails to come 
to a profitable size. The tree, with its great load of fruit grow- 
ing at the ends of long limbs, is at the mercy of the winds, and 
is often split and ruined by the mere weight of its burden. 
Therefore, it may be true that the lemon tree left to itself will 
produce heavily, but it is generally recognized that to produce 
the largest per cent of good-sized and fancy lemons the tree 
must be intelligently pruned. 

In the method of pruning given in the sketch the main object 
has been to shorten back and strengthen the scaffold or main 
limbs, so that they will carry their load nearer the center of 
the tree and be stocky and stiff enough to withstand strong 
winds without swaying and bruising the fruit. This method, 
properly carried out, has produced good results. It has, how- 
ever, caused a tendency in the tree to form too thick and dense 
a head; a tendency very hard to combat. Even when carefully 
thinned out, trees shortened back in this way grow faster in 
their tops than in their lateral branches; on the principle that 
the sap flows most freely in* vertical lines. The result is apt 
to be a tree high and all top; and this top, while beautiful to 

*By C. W. Leffingwell, Jr., Manager of the " Leffingwell Orchards," 
Fnllerton, Cal. 



192 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



behold (to a "tenderfoot") is not fruitful, but consists chiefly 
of rank-growing, vertical leaders, commonly called suckers. 
These suckers are not supplied with fruit spurs, and are as 
worthless as so much bamboo. Even did they bear fruit, it 
would be almost inaccessible, and expensive to pick. The 
lower limbs, naturally the most fruitful, are robbed of sap 
by the superior drawing powers of the top, and fail to do their 
duty. 

To overcome these difficulties the "open center" style of 
pruning has been tried, and has given good results. By 




Skeleton sketch of a cross-section of an open-center tree. Hair lines 
indicate where to cut limbs. 

eliminating the top entirely, the sap is thrown into the lower 
branches. These limbs being horizontal rather than vertical, 
and more or less bent, elaborate or digest the sap and produce 
heavy crops of good-sized fruit. This fruit, moreover, is within 
reach from the ground and can be economically picked. 
When the tree is once adapted to this form, the regular prun- 
ing is more easily and quickly performed, the number of limbs 
to be cut being greatly reduced, 'and all being within reach 
from the ground. 

An explanation of the details of this system should prop- 
erly come under two heads: "Pruning of young trees," and 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 



193 



"Altering old trees." As most of the lemon trees in California 
are three years old or over, this paper will be confined to a 
discussion of the method of altering old trees to conform to the 
"open-center" style. 

It is assumed that the trees to be altered are branched fairly 
near the ground. If they have been up high no system of 
pruning will bring the fruit within reach from the ground, but 
to cut out the tops will save sap and make the lower limbs, 
such as they are, more fruitful. 





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Lemon tree pruned by the open-center method. 

Assuming, then, that the grower has trained his trees near 
the ground, and has not caused the branches to grow up for 
elephants to walk under, the method of procedure is as follows: 
Draw an imaginary line around the outside of the tree, as high 
up as a man can reach standing on a picking-box. All the 
limbs that terminate above this line should be cut out. Cut 
them oft" at their juncture with the limbs that terminate below 
the imaginary line. The sketch on page 192 shows roughly 
13c 



194 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

the places where to cut to eliminate the top. When this is 
done the top of the tree, looking down into it, will look like 
the inside of an inverted cone, and the tree may be called 
open-centered. 

If the trees are small, cut out all limbs that extend up from 
the center of the tree at an angle greater than forty-five 
degrees from the horizontal. The tree in appearance will then 
be proportionately the same as the older tree above described, 
and can be trained gradually to the same limit of height. 

The after-treatment of an open-centered tree, whatever its 
size, resolves itself into two distinct operations: the treatment 
of the hollow top, and the training of the main branches. 

The hollow, cone-shaped opening in the top of the tree will 
soon be filled with shoots springing from buds on the main 
limbs, these buds being now exposed to the sun and excited 
into growth. Some of these shoots will stop growing when 
from six to twelve inches long, and will harden up and form 
fruit spurs. Others of these shoots will continue to grow at 
their terminal bud, retaining the color and appearance of tender 
sucker growth. When all have grown long enough to show 
their character, cut out the suckers and leave the fruit spurs. 
As a result, the saucer-like top of the tree will in time be 
clothed with short spurs, shading the main limbs, and bearing 
fruit of finest quality. The top, before a dense thicket, is now 
made fruitful, without in any way interfering with the remain- 
ing (most fruitful) branches. With each growth the suckers 
will for some years persist in coming, but are easy to take out 
as soon as they show their identity. 

The treatment of the lower branches which remain is the 
same as if the top had not been removed. If the tree has been 
well trained from the start its skeleton will consist of three or 
four strong main branches leaving the trunk near the ground, 
and running out more or less horizontally; and one or two 
more sets or decks of the same number of branches, leaving the 
trunk above these and extending out at an angle of from thirty 
to forty-five degrees. These limbs will have been pruned back 
at intervals, and, forming forks at each pruning, will be found 
to support an increasing number of branches as the outside of 
the tree is approached. 

The problem is how to handle the new growth on the tips of 
these branches. In solving this problem we should keep in 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 195 

mind the objects in view, which are: to make the tree stocky, 
and at the same time to keep it from getting too dense. The 
pruning should be confined entirely to an effort to control the 
growth of the skeleton of the tree, letting nature take care of 
the fruit spurs with which this skeleton is clothed. 

The terminal shoots or leaders of the tree should be left 
alone until they have grown to be several feet in length and 
from one quarter to one half inch in diameter. They should 
then be cut back, leaving from six to ten inches from the last 
pruning. In cutting back a vertical leader, cut to a bud that 
points out, away from the tree; horizontal leaders should be 
cut to a bud that points up. By persevering in this practice 
the limbs can be trained out, then up, then out again; they 
will be angular and crooked, which is conducive to fruitful- 
ness. Their angling direction will help to brace them against 
the evergrowing leverage of their fruit and foliage, so that, 
while they may in time be bent down to the horizontal, they 
will never droop and rest upon the ground. 

After each cutting back these leaders should be left alone and 
nature given full sway; and this is what will happen: Five or 
six buds nearest the cut will be excited into growth. Then 
will ensue a struggle to see which of these buds will get the 
most sap. The terminal bud is sure to get its share, and 
become a strong, sucker-like shoot. Probably one or two others 
will secure enough nutriment to become suckers likewise. The 
rest of the buds will have to give up their ambition to shine, 
and will settle down to the domestic role of bearing lemons, 
and thus perpetuating their species. These are the shoots that 
we are after. . Were it not for the cutting back these buds 
would become dormant and lost to use; the leader on which 
they are situated would grow five or six feet perhaps, before 
nature would make another branching, and give more buds a 
chance to go to housekeeping. 

How to handle the shoots which get the sap and become 
leaders is an important question. It is right here that judi- 
cious thinning should be done, to keep the tree from becoming 
too dense. All the shoots should be left until long enough to 
show which will be fruit spurs and which leaders. All but 
one of the leaders, the one which points in the desired direction, 
should be cut off clean. This leader will thus become the 
foundation of all future growth on this branch. At the next 



196 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

pruning it would be well to leave two leaders, laying the 
foundation for a new branch. By alternating in this way we 
can increase the number of ramifications of the tree, without 
getting it too dense — the trouble with most lemon trees. 

These new leaders, when grown big enough, should in turn 
be cut back, and treated in the same manner. Beyond this, 
and keeping water-sprouts out of the center, little need be done 
to the tree. Nature will take care of the rest. 

It may seem impracticable to apply one set of rules to all 
varieties of the lemon tree, but in the experience of the writer, 
all have responded to this method of treatment. The Lisbon, 
being first and last a lusty grower, is bound, whatever the 
style of pruning, to make a rank mass of new wood. Let it 
grow, and cut off what is not wanted; let it grow again, and 
cut it back again. It can be made to bear plenty of fruit 
within easy reach; if left to itself it will produce little but 
stovewood. 

The Eureka and Villa Franca, being of more tractable habits, 
form less and less new wood as they grow older and their crops 
increase; so that in time little or no pruning is necessary. 

The question has been asked, whether the fruit spurs of the 
lemon go on bearing, or die after bearing a few crops; making 
necessary a constant growth of new wood, as with the orange 
and peach. From observation the writer believes that the 
lemon spur, with the apple and pear, is long lived and goes on 
bearing for years. If, on the other hand, the spurs are really 
short lived, severe pruning alone will insure new wood. 

No radical system should be generally adopted without care- 
ful trial. The "open-center" system has been applied to a 
large acreage of lemon trees, with unmistakable benefits, and 
the number of acres so treated is increasing. In the orchards 
in charge of the writer sixteen thousand trees, mostly three 
years old, have been changed to conform to this style. Hardly 
a tree has been lost in the transformation, and prominent 
horticulturists pronounce the trees unsurpassed for their age, 
in size, condition, or fruitfulness. Where before was despair 
as to what to do with the troublesome tops, now all is simple 
and easily done. It would pay every lemon-grower to try 
these suggestions on a few trees, and let the results speak for 
themselves. 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 197 

OPEN HORIZONTAL TRIMMING.* 

It is so called because the tree is trimmed to present this 
form. It is a compromise between the one-deck form of the 
perfect Baronio, and the method of allowing trees to run to 
suckers. 

The principles of Barry, Downing, and Baronio are well 
established, and their utility is understood by observing stu- 
dents of horticulture. 

Trees can be trained to grow in the square, espalier, globe, 
vase, or neglected form. The requisite is to have a definite 
idea of the form desired and of the office the tree is to per- 
form. We get peculiar ideas of form rather from sentiment 
than from thought of utility or profit. We think the form we 
have been used to seeing is the only proper one to produce, 
hence can not think of an apple tree trimmed on the cordon plan 
(raising fruit on parallel limbs not two feet from the ground). 
There was a man who thought lemon trees should be trimmed 
up high, like he had seen apple trees in New York — so that 
horses could pass under the lowest limbs. He is now clerking 
in a livery stable. We do not fail to trim the grape until a 
vineyard looks like a conception of a portion of Inferno by 
Dante and Dore. But it is the profitable way to do. We 
sucker corn because we want ears instead of bare stalks. Why 
not treat the lemon as commercially? It is simply a business 
proposition to remove all the superfluous timber, and to retain 
the bearing surfaces. It means dollars to have the tree low 
and open, rather than so lofty that the price of the fruit is 
consumed in traveling up and down the stepladder to get it. 

Trees arrange their forms by reason of the different methods 
of the distribution of sap. The oak differs from the cypress 
by reason of this unerring law. Shrubs, conifers, palms, and 
all forms of vegetation assume their respective shapes because 
the sap is differently disposed, Some trees, if left to themselves, 
run all the sap to the extremities, as is the case with the peach, 
apricot, and others, hence in their case the extremities must be 
severel}^ cut back, or there is a crop of dead wood in the center 
of the tree. 

We deduce from this principle, which we have not time to 



*By George P. Hall, of San Diego. 



198 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

enlarge upon here, the conclusion that the vigor of the tree 
depends upon an equal distribution of the flow of sap. Dead 
wood is the result of loss of sap in either root or limb. Trees 
left to themselves assume an individuality that is seldom 
profitable. The wild apple, orange, and lemon are of little value 
commercially. We must therefore train them along lines of pro- 
duction. To obtain certain results we must direct the flow of sap 
in the channels in which we wish it to flow, having a definite 
purpose in view, otherwise all so-called trimming is simply 
butchery. The tree must be balanced, therefore arrest growth 
where there is a superfluity and encourage growth where it is 
lacking. Trim short when wood growth is desired. Use tlie 
biblical injunction, "To him that hath shall be given, and to 
him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he 
hath." Cut feeble limbs short and encourage upright growth, 
because upright growth produces wood. The feeble parts 
deprived of fruit will produce wood; the strong parts loaded 
with fruit will produce less wood. Bend the strong parts down, 
keep the weak erect. The more erect the branches, the greater 
the flow of sap to the growing parts; hence the feeble parts left 
erect attract more sap than the strong parts bent down or 
inclined. Sap acts with more force on a limb pruned short 
than on a long one. Two buds with the same flow of sap as in 
twenty buds will be stronger than any of the twenty. Prune 
short for wood branches, because vigorous shoots produce few 
fruit buds. Prune long for fruit, as it is the most tender and 
feeble buds that produce the fruit; bend the limbs at an 
angle or to a horizontal position to produce fruit buds. Prune 
short the parts that have overborne; to secure a prolongation, 
prune to a vigorous wood bud and let nothing interfere. The 
more the sap is obstructed in its circulation, the more the tree 
is disposed to produce fruit. The sap traveling slowly is 
subjected to slower assimilation and is better adapted to the 
production of fruit. 

To change a fruit branch to a wood branch, give it an upright 
position; to make a wood branch bear fruit, bend it to nearly a 
horizontal position. 

Light and air are essential. The rapid growth is toward the 
source of light. Upward growth gives strength of wood, but 
less fruit. 

I do not say the horizontal method is the only one, for fruit 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — PRUNING. 199 

can be produced on a tree of different form; but I do say that 
the principles which I have stated must be followed in order to 
obtain the best results financially, and also to promote the 
longevity of the tree. 

My reasons for advocating the horizontal form are that fruit 
raised on short spurs is less expensive to pick, is of better 
quality, and the tree relieved of its superfluous wood may 
develop into a fruit producer instead of being a specimen of 
growth under the timber culture act. The tree can not produce 
an immense amount of wood and bear a large quantity of good 
fruit at one and the same time. Educate the tree to cease 
raising suckers, and the height and size of your trees are 
controlled. 

In cutting back large trees and in retaining all the horizontal 
limbs, the tree immediately turns its attention toward fruit- 
fulness, because the sap is directed along fruitful channels 
instead of being sent toward the sky. By preserving all well- 
placed limbs a foundation to build on is secured, with some 
expectation of reaping a reward for labor expended. 

The cost of picking fruit from trees trimmed on the horizon- 
tal plan, and not more than eight or ten feet in height, is 
greatly reduced. 

We can but barely hint at the wideness of the application 
of the principles of the horizontal method, so we simply 
recapitulate: 

Trees receive their individual form by the natural direction 
of the sap; therefore, direct the sap and you control the tree. 

Most trees send the sap to the top, being drawn thereto by 
the sun. Change the habit. 

Vigor of the tree depends on equal distribution of the sap; 
therefore, distribute it by judicious trimming. 

Trees left entirely to themselves are seldom profitable. The 
wild tree must be civilized by grafting or budding, and 
pruning. 

Trees can be trained to assume at the same time profitable 
and symmetrical forms. Results come from systematically 
directing the growing life of the tree. 

The tree must be balanced top and root. Pruning gives 
activity to root growth. Loss of limbs incites healthy action 
of the roots. 



200 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

Deprive the feeble parts of fruit, and make the vigorous 
parts bear all they will. 

Bend the strong parts down, put the weak erect. Tie and 
arrange limbs as you want them. Make the tree your servant. 

The greater the number of erect limbs in a tree, the sooner 
will its vitality be exhausted; it lives too fast. 

Fruit grown on short spurs is less liable to injury. 

The horizontal type of pruning gives a definite plan for the 
life and habit of your tree, which is immensely superior to all 
others. 

Lay a horizontal superstructure, and you build your tree 
strongly. 

It is important that the man who plans the form of the tree 
should follow its training thereafter. Do not deliver it over to 
the accidental haggler who does not understand your plan, 
and has none of his own. Snipping is not trimming. 

There is but little loss of fruit, or time, in changing the 
form of the tree by the horizontal method of pruning; the tree 
immediately begins a fruitful career. 




iHJiHHiBHiili 



Tree pruned by the so-called " Semi-Baronio System." 

SEMI-BARONIO SYSTEM. 

As is often the case, there are always many who believe they 
can improve upon whatever method may be used, as in this 
instance. Several orchards have been treated by what is called 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA TREATMENT. 201 

the "Semi-Baronio System." This consists mainly of taking out 
.the center of large trees, allowing the ingress of air and light, 
but otherwise without any scientific principle. The growth at 
the top and on the outside is cut back, as in the rounding 
system of old. The branches put forth numerous shoots, which 
are again shortened the season following, and so the work 
goes on. 

TREATMENT OF THE LEMON. 

The systems of processing the lemon for market are numerous, 
but in all the main objects are to reduce the thickness of the 
rind, to close up the pores of the skin in a natural way, so as 
to render the texture smooth and velvety to the touch, while 
the lemon remains firm and solid, to increase its juiciness, 
and to hold the fruit in that condition to supply the market 
when it is at its best. 

J. W. Freeman, of Ontario, gives the following suggestions 
in handling and processing lemons, derived from the experience 
of years of processing and marketing lemons by the Ontario 
Exchange: 

" The question that is now to the front in the lemon industry 
is what might properly be termed lemon-holding. Those most 
familiar with the business have, for some time, been convinced 
that some way should be devised for taking the surplus fruit 
ofif the winter market, and holding it for the summer trade. 
Indeed, the life of the industry seemed to depend upon the possi- 
bility of that being successfully done. With that end in view 
a few of our growers, beginning with the November pick, held 
their winter lemons until May, June, and July, of the season 
of 1896-97, securing satisfactory results as to keeping qualities 
and prices. Encouraged by the success of these, some eighty of 
our members pursued the same plan the following season, with 
like results, excepting that some of the fruit was marketed in 
August, a month later than the year before. It would be only 
fair to say that success has not been uniform in each case, but 
it has been in proportion to the care taken and the facilities for 
storing the fruit. An expensive house is not necessary, indeed 
almost any place will do in winter; but appliances for keeping 
a low, even temperature are necessary in summer, and doubt- 
less are desirable in Avinter as well. A fairly tight box with 



202 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

plenty of fresh air circulating about it, at a temperature 
between 60° and 70°, seems to us to be the essential condition • 
for the best success in holding lemons. Shade will greatly help 
in keeping down temperature, and is, by some, thought to be 
equal to a double wall. Means should be provided, by doors, 
windows, or ventilators, for thoroughly changing the air every 
night, unless in very damp weather, when it might be advisable 
to air in daytime. Fruit should not be allowed to wilt before 
putting away, but the boxes should be left somewhat open for 
a time, varying according to the conditions of the place in 
which they are, to allow surplus moisture to pass off. The top 
boxes should be well covered, so that the fruit will not dry out and 
thus become worthless. It is desirable to retard what is known 
as the curing process as long as possible; therefore, each grower 
should study the conditions of his house, and have as little 
evaporation as possible, without allowing moisture to collect 
on the fruit. This will also prevent the fruit from getting soft. 
Stacking fruit in large piles without spaces between should be 
avoided, although we have known it to keep well for a time in 
that way, when it was not in a close room. Medium-sized 
houses seem to be preferable. To be in ideal condition the 
fruit should come out firm, with stems fast and green. This 
will not be the case if fruit heats or sweats. The fruit should 
be placed so that it can be inspected occasionally, and defects 
remedied. 

" Having said this much, any description of a house will be 
unnecessary, as such a one as will meet the requirements of 
each grower will readily suggest itself. I might say, however, 
that a sloping roof inside with air holes at ridge will give 
better ventilation than a flat ceiling. We deem it desirable, if 
not essential, that each grower hold his own fruit. 

"A word as to the fruit. All that has ever been said as to 
the need of carefully handling the fruit should have full 
weight. The trees should be kept clean. The fruit can not be 
at its best if the trees are infested with scale and the fruit has 
to be washed ; but should that be the case, the lemons should, 
by all means, be brushed or washed when taken from the trees. 
The fruit should be looked over carefully, and the inferior, 
dark-colored, and small-sized kept by themselves with a view to 
earlier marketing. Fruit carefully picked and properly stored 
under right conditions, if uninjured by frost, will need very 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — TREATMENT. 203 

little handling, if any, before shipping. The less handling the 
better. As much fruit as the trade will take at fair prices 
should be marketed during the winter. The matter of the 
desirability of winter marketing will have to be governed by 
the outlook for the coming summer and the supply. 

" What effect a heavy rain or an irrigation has on the keep- 
ing qualities of fruit picked immediately after, is a disputed 
question. Ordinarily no harm can come by waiting, and good 
may. 

" The important points regarding the question of storing 
are, we think, fairly well covered, so far as our experience goes, 
and they are: Experience in picking the lemons at their proper 
maturity and size; the greatest care and tenderness in hand- 
ling them in all the processes of storage and marketing; keep- 
ing them in an even temperature of from 60° to 70°, and 
frequent change of air in the storage house and apartments; 
and individual holdings." 

A. J. Everest, manager of the Everest orchards at Riverside, 
in the "California Fruit Grower" of November 25, 1895, 
describes his method of picking, curing, and packing lemons 
for shipment, as follows: 

" We pick our lemons whenever they are large enough, with- 
out regard to color, preferably while green or slightly turned, 
taking care that no fruit smaller than the 300 size to the box 
is picked, as the fruit shrinks some in curing, and thus increases 
the number to the box. We have used rings to determine the 
size, but find it too much trouble to try a ring on each lemon, 
and now give each packer a lemon of the proper size, and let 
him continually compare his picking. 

"After being picked we haul the lemons to the shed, and 
pile them up in the picking-boxes for two or three weeks, or 
until most of the moisture is dried out, before placing them in 
the curing-house. We then wrap the lemons separately in tissue 
paper and lay them on trays one layer deep, having previously 
graded the fruit. We then store them in our curing-house, 
which is made with double walls, filled in with sawdust to keep 
the room at an even temperature. We have ventilators in 
ceiling and floor of room, and regulate amount of fresh air 
and temperature by them, allowing temperature to stand from 
56° to 60° as a rule. 

" Storage curing-trays are about three inches deep, with a 
cleat on each end, thus raising them up to allow the air to 



204 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

circulate among the fruit, and to keep everything dry as far as 
advisable. We find that fruit picked early and while quite 
green, say in November, always cures the best and with the 
least possible shrinkage or loss by decay. 

" When packing the fruit for shipment, the wraps that were 
used for curing can be used, except where the paper has been 
moistened by decay in the vicinity or is torn or wet from other 
causes. It is better to remove all old wraps, regrade the fruit, 
and then pack the same as oranges, using if possible the Sicily 
style of box, which is obtainable now on this Coast." 

In 1890, N. W. Blanchard, of Santa Paula, an extensive 
lemon-grower, and President and General Manager of the 
Lemonia Company, of Santa Paula, read an essay on " The 
lemon and its treatment," before the State Fruit-Growers' Con- 
vention, in which he described his method of curing lemons, 
essentially the same as now practiced by him. In 1894, in an 
essay before the Farmers' Institute at Santa Barbara, he said: 

" The essentials for keeping lemons several months are to 
exclude the air, or any circulation of air around the fruit, and 
at the same time to give ample circulation of air about the 
trays or boxes that contain the lemons. My experience is, that 
if there are a good many boxes of lemons closely massed, even 
with cool weather some of the fruit will decay. When one 
lemon begins to rot heat is generated, and this acts like yeast, 
causing fermentation and rottenness to spread rapidly. I do 
not think expensive buildings are necessary. I have seen 
no better cured and preserved lemons than some that were 
wrapped in pieces of newspaper, placed in layers in common 
boxes with more paper between layers, the boxes covered with 
light covering so as to shut off all circulation of air, and all piled 
in the end of an airy barn. These lemons were shown to me 
in July, and I was informed that they were cut in November 
previous. The lemons were firm, finely colored, and in excel- 
lent condition for shipment. 

" I know no reason for changing my method of curing 
lemons. I continue to use trays two by three feet and three 
inches deep, each holding only one layer of lemons. They are 
convienient to work with and to examine the lemons. They 
should be carefully made, so that when the trays are stacked 
one on the other there is no chance for the air to reach the 
fruit. 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — TREATMENT. 205 

" The lemons are picked frequently, if there are any suitable 
to pick, so as to prevent having over-large and over-ripe fruit. 
I generally use a ring two and one quarter inches in diameter, 
and take all that will not pass through it. 

" The lemons are cut close to the fruit, handled very care- 
fully, hauled from the orchard in a truck on springs, washed 
immediately if smutty or dusty, then placed on trays, and from 
one to ten days afterward piled away for keeping, if they are 
to be kept or need the darkness to color. If already colored 
and needed for immediate consumption, the trays are cross 
piled, so as to give them all the air possible. If for remote 
shipment, the lemons should be shipped quite hard, and even 
a little green, for they will cure in transit or in the hands of 
the jobber and retailer." 

T. J. Ashby, Secretary of the Pasadena Lemon-Growers' 
Association, in a report to the association, says: 

"The stems must be cut close, but care must be taken not to 
cut, scratch, or bruise the fruit. It is found that many culls 
are made by careless clipping and long finger-nails. 

"The desirable sizes are the 360's in summer and the SOO's 
in winter. These measure 2^ and 2^ to 2f inches. Lemons 
above and below are graded, subject to the discretion of the 
manager. 

"Lemon groves should be picked over once a month. Use 
padded baskets or pails, into which the fruit should be laid, 
not dropped or thrown, then carefully transfer to boxes placed 
in the shade. 

"Pick before irrigation or wait several da3's. Never pick 
lemons moist from fog or dew, or leave them unprotected after 
gathering. 

"Haul to the warehouse on easy springs; drive carefully and 
have the lemons covered to protect from dust and sun. We 
advise delivering or placing in barn or shed as soon as possible 
after picking. 

"Smutty fruit received will be washed or sponged at the 
expense of the grower. Members have the option of doing this 
for themselves, but it is well to remember that spraying or 
fumigating is much less of an expense. 

"It will pay the grower to cull his own fruit and not be 
forced to haul it both ways. Experience will soon show a 
novice what to reject. 



206 STATE BOARD OF HOBTICULTURE. 

" The sum of these suggestions is that the one who brings the 
best grade of carefully handled fruit is the one who gets the 
best returns at the least personal expense." 

The Advisory Board of the Lemon-Growers, who are affiliated 
with the Southern California Fruit Exchange, through Morton 
Haig, of San Gabriel, formulated and published, in April, 1897, 
the following hints regarding the gathering, etc., of fruit: 

"Have pickers' nails trimmed short; few will believe how 
much fruit goes as 'culls' from damage by long finger-nails. 

" Clip the fruit close to the stem. 

"Do not use sacks in which to gather; lemons are thereby 
bumped and bruised with every movement of the body. Use 
baskets lined with sacking. 

" Do not tumble fruit from the basket into boxes, but handle 
lemons as you would eggs, from start to finish. 

" Never pick when there is moisture from fog, and wait at 
least four to five days after rain or irrigation. 

" Place all filled boxes on the north side of the tree, and 
shade closely from the sun. 

*'Go over trees once every four or five weeks, and thus save 
sun-burned and over-sized fruit, all of which goes as a third- 
grade fruit, or is, more frequently, thrown out. 

" Pick in winter months to a uniform size of 2$ inches in 
diameter, and in summer months to a uniform size of 2^ 
inches. Metal rings for this purpose can easily be obtained or 
made. 

" Loaded wagons should never be allowed to trot or bump 
over plow furrows, ditches, or chuckholes. 

" If dirty fruit has to be washed, let this process be gotten 
over quickly; by employing the greatest number possible to 
this end, will save the fruit immensely. During all undue 
exposures the work of deterioration is rapidly progressing. 
Here again avoid all dumping of the fruit, and look to washers' 
nails. 

" If fruit has to be taken to depot or central packing-house, 
let it be done, in summer, during the cool of the morning or 
evening. 

"The grower, in following out such suggestions, has then 
done his level best. A responsible curer, packer, and a good 
market will do the rest. 



THE LEMON IN CALIFORNIA — SIZES, HANDLING, ETC. 207 

"The above applies equally to oranges in their separate 
treatment. There would be fewer complaints of fruit arriving 
at its journey's end 'heated,' etc., if growers were more partic- 
ular with regard to handling. 

"It has been specially noted, for instance, by the exchanges, 
that during the wet months serious damage has ensued from 
gathering oranges too early after a heavy rain, and in many 
districts the 'washing and scrubbing' system has been added to 
the already soft and soddened fruit conditions." 

LEMON SIZES— STANDARD BOX. 

The sizes of lemons packed for shipment differ from those 
used in packing the orange for shipment. The sizes are 210, 
240, 250, 275, 288, 300, 360, and 420. Occasionally larger and 
smaller sizes are packed, should the market warrant their 
shipment. Of the sizes named, the 300 and 360 are recognized 
by the trade as regular sizes, and all others known as oft' sizes. 

The standard lemon box, and the one now generally used in 
California is — 

standard Lemon Box, 103^"xl4"x27". 

Ends 3pieces^"xlOK"xl4" 

Sides 2 pieces I4"x 9J4"x27" 

Tops and bottoms 4 pieces %"x ti%"x27" 

Cleats 2 pieces %"x %"x ISJ^" 

COST OF HANDLING LEMONS. 

The cost of handling lemons from the tree to the car, without 
including the expenses mentioned, was given to the Tariff Com- 
mittee of Southern California as follows by N. W. Blanchard, 
of Santa Paula: 

"Actual cost of picking, brushing, sorting, and packing 
lemons, per box, including paper wrappers and boxes, for the 
year 1896, as per account kept of same, was 63 cents. The box 
used for lemons was the orange box. The standard lemon box 
is fifteen per cent larger than the orange box, the standard box 
being 10i"x 14"x 12^", inside measurements for each of the 
two compartments. Adding fifteen per cent to the above cost 
of 63 cents would make the cost of the standard lemon box 
72 cents. 



208 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

"For labor I pay the following prices per day: 

For girls $1 00 

For ordinary men's labor _. .. 1 25 

For more experienced men 1 50 

For foreman of the pickers in the orchard 175 

For overseer in packing lemons 2 00 

"The cost of handling lemons, as above, does not include 
anything for general overseer of the orchard, or for clerical 
help in the office." 

B. A. Woodford, Secretary and. Manager of the Ontario Lemon 
Exchange, gave the same committee a statement showing in 
detail the cost of a box of lemons from the tree to the car, as 
follows : 

Picking (Hauling calculated in orchard expenses). $0 15 to $0 18 

Exchange expense 20 

Packing 08 

Rent of plant ($5,000 investment) 08 

Curing expense (labor)... - 15 

Office and miscellaneous expense 14 

Total expense to car, per box $0 80 to $0 83 

Freight 1 00 

Cost of selling, winter 12 

Total cost per box, winter shipment $1 92 to $1 95 

Summer Shipment. 

Winter shipment $1 92 to $1 95 

Increased cost of selling (25c.).- 13 

Icing 229 

Cost per box, summer shipment $2 279 to $2 309 

r 




Lemon Grove, Chula Vista. 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY. 209 



SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY. 

By W. Catton Grasby, F.L.S. (Being a summary of notes collected by him 
as Honorary Commissioner for the South Australian Government.*) 

Sicily, the Home of the Lemon.— Sicily is a triangular 
island, with a narrow coastal plain bordering a central moun- 
tainous plateau, rugged and largely forest-clad, terminating on 
the east in the black, fissure-furrowed, lava-covered slopes of 
volcanic Etna. On the north coast is Palermo, the largest 
town, and chief center of the lemon industry. Messina on the 
east coast to the north of Etna, and Catania to the south of 
the same mountain, divide the major portion of the remaining 
trade. The Australian lemon trade is chiefly in the hands of 
Messina merchants, and the fruit is sent via Naples, Brindisi, 
or Marseilles. Sulphur, citric acid, oil of lemon, and sumac 
chiefly pass through the trade channels of Genoa or London, 
or both. 

Sicily is preeminently the home of the lemon. It does well 
in many other places, but it reaches perfection in Sicily. 
Why? The question is a most important one, and I have 
thought over it a great deal. The St. Michael orange, the 
Jaffa orange, or the Sicilian lemon, even when grown from 
trees raised in other places and taken to other parts of the 
world, generally, for the time at least, possess the outward 
form and general characteristics, but lack the fine quality, 
of the luscious fruit which has secured a world-wide reputa- 
tion. There is a close relationship, not at all understood, 
between local conditions and the product of the plants. A 
close study of the problems of fruit culture has led me to think 
that while we should introduce all new and desirable varieties 
of fruits from all parts of the world, because we never know 
which will prove particularly valuable under our conditions, 
we should pay a great deal more attention to the improvement 
of our own varieties. I must not, however, discuss the whole 
question now. It is only necessary to emphasize the fact that 
the conditions of soil and climate in Sicily are particularly 
suited to the lemon, and that by generations of experience the 

* Published in "Garden and Field" of Adelaide, South Australia; five 
chapters, commencing in the December, 1898, number. 

14c 



210 STATE BOARD qF HORTICULTURE. 

Sicilian has learned how to deal with lemons better than any 
one else. It does not follow, however, that the whole of Sicily 
is adapted to lemon culture, or that the lemons grown in the 
various districts are of equal quality. 

Mountain and Coastal Lemons.— A study of the varying 
conditions in Sicily, when considered in relation to the vary- 
ing conditions in South Australia, leads to valuable lessons. 
Speaking generally, Sicilian lemons are known as mountain- 
grown lemons and coastal or plains lemons. This distinction^ 
however, does not always mean that the lemons were grown 
among the mountains, but rather that they were grown in soil 
corresponding to the soil of the mountain lemon districts. As 
a rule, the coastal plains consist of a light sandy soil, often 
with a gravelly subsoil. The hillside soils are stronger and 
consist of a well-drained clay loam, and it is on these soils that 
lemons of the best quality are produced. The fruit so grown 
is more solid and more juicy, and altogether of finer quality. 
Speaking of this, the United States Consul at Messina, Mr. 
Jones, said: "The soil has a great influence upon the maturing 
and keeping qualities of oranges and lemons. The fruit ripens 
earlier on light sandy soil than on clay soil. Fruit grown on 
light sandy soil can not be left long on the trees without losing 
quality through becoming dry and spongy, whereas on clay 
soils it is sometimes allowed to hang from December or Jan- 
uary until April. The fruit grown on sandy soil is smaller 
and of a paler yellow. That grown on the clay soils is larger 
and keeps better. Trees on clay soil resist drought much 
better." As an example, it may be mentioned that the fruit 
grown in the groves to the southwest of Palermo district is 
much more highly prized than that from the groves on the 
northwest, the sole difference being the clay and sandy char- 
acters of the soils. " Mountain lemons," which is synonymous 
with fruit grown on loamy clay soil, bring as much as one 
third more than "coast fruit," which is grown on light sandy 
soil. The superiority is always attributed to the soil more 
than to the elevation. " Fruit produced on the plains of 
Portello, the soil of which is clay, brings the same price as 
that grown on the heights of Monreale," about the beauties of 
which and the wonderful mosaics of the Cathedral, I hope to 
have something to say at another time. 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY — CULTURE. 211 

Climatic Conditions. — From what I have just said it will 
be gathered that the lemon lands of Sicily may be divided into 
two classes — first with respect to soil, and second with respect 
to altitude. The coastal zone embraces the narrow coastal 
plains and the lower portions of the valleys up to 1,000 or 
1,500 feet above sea-level. The mountain region includes the 
higher valleys and hills from 1,500 to about 3,000 feet above 
sea-level. Beyond this the climate is too moist and the frost 
too severe for lemon culture. This wide range of altitude 
within a limited area is an important factor in the production 
and marketing of lemons. The fruit near the coast ripens 
first, and the lemon harvests succeed one another as one 
proceeds into the interior. It will be readily seen that it is 
difficult to summarize the climatic conditions of a range of 
country such as I have indicated. The best I can do is to give 
the range of temperature of Palermo, which is on the north 
coast. Ordinarily the thermometer ranges from about 34° 
Fahr. in winter to 95° Fahr. in summer. The average for the 
year is about 70° Fahr. Occasionally it rises as high as 104° 
Fahr., and sinks as low as 30° Fahr. There is not, however, 
much difference between Palermo and Adelaide in temperature, 
but the climate of Palermo is more humid than ours, and the 
contrasts less sudden. The hot south wind of Sicily comes 
from the deserts of North Africa, but it has to travel over the 
moisture-laden surface of the Mediterranean, so that when it 
reaches Sicily, although it is hot, it has lost the parching 
power of our north wind, fresh from the almost treeless plains 
of the vast interior of Australia. 

The year may be divided into a wet and a dry period. During 
the winter, or from the end of September to April, the prevail- 
ing winds are strong and constant, and bring a large amount 
of moisture. The fall during the six months named averages 
22 inches, and the average for the year is between 25 and 30 
inches. 

SICILIAN LEMON CULTURE. 

The methods of culture of the lemon in Sicily vary more or 
less in different districts under different conditions. It is 
impossible to describe all the varying details, so that it will 
be necessary for the reader to consider my remarks as the pre- 
vailing conditions. My notes are the result of careful inquiry 



212 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

and observation, extending from the coastal region well up into 
the mountains, and I have verified them as far as possible by 
reference to the scanty literature on the subject. This is almost 
entirely confined to more or less brief references to the subject 
in British and American consular reports. The most complete 
account of Sicilian lemon culture I have seen is that by Acting- 
Consul de Garston, made in 1895. Some of the statements in 
some of these reports appear to me to be a little misleading, in 
consequence, I think, of the writers not being familiar with 
fruit culture, and so misunderstanding the information given 
by growers, but they are valuable in many respects. 

The Nursery. — For convenience and clearness, I will divide 
the life of the tree into two periods. These are clearly marked, 
but very unequal in duration. The first is the nursery period, 
and extends over from five to six, and sometimes seven years. 
The second is the management of the tree in the lemon grove. 
The usual care is taken to secure a^suitable plot of ground for 
the seed-bed, but I did not find the practice, followed by our 
nurserymen, of raising seedlings in frames, to be in operation. 
Formerly young trees were largely raised from layers or cut- 
tings, but this practice is almost discontinued, because the trees 
are considered less robust and more subject to disease. Up to 
within the last twenty years the stocks were raised from lemon 
seed, but now the bitter orange. Citrus bigaradia, is almost 
always used. I think it is called Cedrangoli amari by the 
Sicilian growers. The dry seed from this stock is, I believe, 
sold at from 1.50 lire to 2.00 lire per kilogram (a kilo is about 
2.2 pounds, so that the seed costs roughly 8d. per pound). The 
bitter orange is a free, vigorous grower, and possesses a hardy 
constitution not subject to disease. The seed-bed, having been 
carefully prepared of sandy loam, is divided into rectangular 
plots, each surrounded by a raised border or bank, so arranged 
that water can be run into each for irrigation purposes and the 
plot flooded. About a quart of orange-pips are sown on a plot 
about ten feet by two feet, and are covered with about one inch 
of sandy soil. The pips are planted in spring (March or April), 
and are frequently soaked in water before sowing. When sown, 
the plot is well watered, and it is kept moist during the whole 
of the summer until the first autumn rains, by watering every 
four days at least. The young plants show in about two 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY — CULTURE. 213 

months, and are set out in the nursery in the following spring, 
Avhen about eighteen inches high. 

Method of Culture. — The amount of labor involved in rais- 
ing a lemon tree and bringing it into bearing appears to be 
many times greater than with us, and 1 think we expect to 
obtain crops two or three years earlier than does the Sicilian, 
who does not bud his stocks until the fourth or fifth year, and 
does not expect them to bear until they are eight years old. 
In this connection it should also be mentioned, that if he waits 
three years longer he expects his trees to give him a crop for 
from fort}^ to one hundred years. It is stated that in some 
cases both orange and lemon trees in Sicily live to be two 
hundred years old. In thinking over this I am led to ask, Do 
we force our trees too much? Were the stocks used on our old 
trees of a poor quality? Or why do our old trees cease to pro- 
duce good fruit and die so much earlier than those of Sicily? 
I do not know, but these questions may be worth considering. 
The nursery is very carefully chosen, the two main consider- 
ations being the soil and the sunny aspect. After being 
thoroughly well worked it is divided into small plots, each with 
a raised mound of soil. These plots are not of uniform size. 
In some districts what is called the " Mettere a Casella" (plant- 
ing in a cell) system is adopted. In this system the nursery is 
divided into small cells or plots about eighteen inches square, 
and a year-old seedling, generally about eighteen inches high, 
is planted in each corner of the cell. Each plant is tied to a 
'Straight stick, and so made to grow as straight as possible. At 
the beginning of the third year alternate plants are taken out 
and replanted. This is called planting in " piantonaio." In 
the fifth year the stocks are usually budded. I was struck 
with the fine, large, tall, straight saplings which the stocks 
formed in their fifth year. 

In other districts a somewhat different method is followed. 
The plots are much larger. Each one is surrounded by a 
mound of soil, and is placed end onto an irrigation channel, so 
arranged that the water can be run onto the plots one after the 
other for the frequent irrigations. In these plots the seedlings 
are set out at a distance of not less than eighteen inches. The 
plants are carefully tended and watered every week during the 
first year, and every second week afterward. In the fifth year 



214 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

they are tall, well-grown trees of, say, an inch in diameter, and 
are then grafted or budded. Sometimes this is done in the 
nursery, and sometimes the saplings are set out in their per- 
manent position first. In either case the bud or graft is made 
about four feet from the ground. The methods followed are 
in no important point different from those followed here. The 
most frequent practice is to use the shield-bud method in 
early summer, and when this fails, to bud again in autumn, 
and allow the bud to remain dormant until spring. 

The land for the lemon grove is well prepared, and in the 
hot months of July and August the "formelle," or holes for 
planting, are dug about three feet deep, and in the late autumn, 
or early spring, the saplings are removed from the nursery 
and set out. Before planting, the trees are often made to 
undergo a peculiar treatment, called the " Ordeal of Darkness.^' 
They are dug up from the nursery and put in wicker baskets 
filled with loam and conveyed to a dark room, where they are 
kept away from the light for about fifteen days. They are then 
exposed to half-light for five days, and then placed in an ex- 
posed, but shady spot, for a month. Should a tree show signs of 
sickness it is again conveyed to the dark room for eight or ten 
days more. It is said that trees subjected to this ordeal seldom, 
if ever, fail to take speedy root and thrive. The trees are 
planted at from twelve to fifteen feet apart, and the rows are 
placed as nearly north and south as can be managed. 

How Trees Are Trained. — The system of training the trees 
with a high, straight stem, and planting closely together, ren-* 
ders it necessary to prune trees much more than is done in 
South Australia. The trees meet overhead, but one can walk 
upright under the main branches. Sunlight and a free circu- 
lation of air are essential to the lemon, therefore the trees are 
kept open by systematic pruning and trimming, so that in an 
old grove there is an even distribution of fruit over the whole 
area. 

Annual Crops Between Trees. — It is the custom to grow 
cereals, vegetables, peas, beans, lupins, and other crops 
between the trees for some years. Quite frequently, too, vines 
or cotton plants are grown in the young lemon groves. Of 
course, such groves receive much hand cultivation, regular 
manuring, and liberal cultivation. When the development of 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY — CULTURE. 



215 



the lemon trees prevents the further cultivation of annual 
crops, the work assumes a regular character. 

Irrigation. — Wherever possible, irrigation takes place at 
regular intervals through the summer months. In the moun- 
tains this is done by gravitation from the mountain streams, 
and the irrigation ditches are always a prominent feature in the 
lemon grove. Usually each tree stands in the center of a basin, 
formed by a small 
mound of sbil, and 
into this basin the 
water is run at in- 
tervals. On the 
lower lands I found 
artificial means of 
raising water were 
used, and I was 
struck with the ex- 
tent and complete- 
ness of the steam 
pumping plants in 
some of the larger 
plantations. I 
think there must 
have been many 
miles of concrete 
channels. These 
channels were 
sometimes five or 
six feet above the 
level of the ground, 
and were carried on 
concrete walls 
about eighteen 
inches thick. When it was necessary to cross one of the road- 
ways which divided the grove into regular blocks for conven- 
ience of gathering the crop, and other work, an earthenware 
inverted siphon was used, carrying the water under the road 
and up the other side. Except for the siphons, these channels 
reminded one of the old Roman aqueducts on a small scale. 
The first irrigation is given in June, when the fruit from the 




Sicilian lemon tree, showiug method of pruning. 



216 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

early bloom is the size of a, pea, and the trees are still in bloom. 
In dry districts perhaps nine other waterings will be given. 

Pruning and Trimming. — In a former article, in speaking 
of the training of lemon trees in Sicily, I used two terms — 
"pruning" and "trimming." These must be explained, or 
they may lead to misunderstanding. 

By trimming (" rimondaments ") is meant the removal of all 
dry twigs, suckers, water shoots, stunted or rank growth, and 




Sicilian lemon trees planted on side hills. 

twigs which have borne and become exhausted. This is done 
in the winter, and should be carefully attended to every year. 

In addition to this about every three years the trees are 
gone over more thoroughl}'-, and thinned out after the main 
crop is gathered. This is called pruning, and should not be 
required to any great extent if the trimming has been properly 
done. The object is to maintain an open tree, into which light 
and air can freely penetrate as a preventive of disease and so 
that the fruit may be evenly distributed on the inner as well 
as on the outer branches. 

It must not be understood that the Sicilian lemon trees are 
pruned with open centers, for that would be quite misleading. 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY — CULTURE. 217 

The trees are usually trained with a main trunk stem, from 
which the branches put out at irregular intervals. The pruning 
simply gives an airy, open-branched tree, which is necessary, 
because the trees are planted so closely together — from twelve 
to sixteen feet — that the branches meet and interlace, so that 
if the tops were not kept open light and air would be excluded. 
Again, by allowing the trees to grow into one another it becomes 
necessary to cut away all the lower limbs and to train the trees 
with high trunks, in order that the workmen and pickers may 
pass beneath. In giving these reasons I am in a measure 
theorizing, because the Sicilian does not know why he does 
this or many other things, except that his father and grand- 
father did the same. I did find a few groves where the trees 
were planted at from eighteen to twenty-four feet apart, and then 
they were allowed to assume much the same shape as those to 
be seen in the Payneham and Marden orangeries. This was 
particularly noticeable in a large orangery of about one hun- 
dred acres that I visited about six miles from Palermo, in 
connection with the Villa Elleanora del Principe di Scalea. 
The tendency is to give more room to the orange trees than to 
the lemon trees. 

The lemon groves are generally surrounded by stone walls 
aijout five feet high, but often eight or nine feet high. The 
latter I gather were originally built as a protection to the 
people in the lawless condition of the country. This idea is 
also seen in the character of the buildings. At present the walls 
serve as protection from winds. I found them a nuisance, for 
they often necessitated my stopping my driver and going inside, 
when, had the walls been low, I could have satisfied myself by 
looking over. 

Cultivation and Fertilization. — The care taken of Sicilian 
lemon groves varies as greatly as does the attention given to 
fruit trees in all countries I have visited. As a rule, however, 
they are generally well cared for, and an immense amount of 
labor is expended on them. I was informed that notwith- 
standing the low wages of from Is. to 2s. a day for men, the 
average cost of working a lemon grove is not less than 650 lire 
per hectare. This is equal to about £10 an acre, and I was 
informed that near Catania the expense was sometimes three 
times that. 



218 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

The soil is dug or hoed from three to five times a year. The 
Sicilian hoe is like a small shovel on a bent handle. In 
January or February the soil is dug fairly deep, and the trees are 
manured. In April the soil is stirred again, and the "conche," 
or embanked basins, are formed. In June it is dug again for 
weeding. Lemon trees are manured every year in some groves, 
every other year in others, and every third year in perhaps the 
majority. The decomposed droppings of different animals, 
decayed litter and leaves, bones, ashes, etc., are used as they 
are available, and in some cases artificial manures are applied. 

A year after the tree is planted the soil is cleared away 
around the base, commencing at a distance of perhaps two feet 
and to a depth of a foot or fifteen inches, and into the trench 
are emptied two baskets of compost, weighing perhaps forty or 
fifty pounds. The trench is then filled up, and the earth 
placed to form a mound around the tree. A similar method 
is followed in applying manure to old trees, but the trench is 
made at a greater distance from the base, according to the size 
of the tree. For old trees, from eighty to ninety pounds of 
compost are applied to each tree. Manure is best applied in 
winter or in early spring. Autumn manuring is considered to 
affect unfavorabl}'^ the quality of the lemons. 

In driving through the country, and in more closely inspect- 
ing many groves of varying areas in different localities, no fact 
more strongly impressed me than the very striking difference 
in the healthiness, cleanliness, and freedom from disease of 
orchards and trees, often on adjoining properties. When a 
grower, from want of capital, laziness, or bad management, 
does not irrigate, manure, and cultivate his grove, the trees 
tell even the passer-by of the neglect. The generality of the 
lemon groves are well cared for, the trees are healthy and the 
fruit clean. In some localities I found the lemon round scale 
fairly frequent, but no systematic treatment with insecticides 
is practiced. 

CROPS. 

. I have already referred to the succession of crops, and to 
the fact that as the lemon is cultivated over a considerable 
range of climate, the lemon harvest continues for many 
months. It was pointed out that the April blossoms produced 
a crop of lemons in October, those of May in November and 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY — CROPS; 219 

December in any given locality. The October fruit is known 
as "primo-fiore," or choice fruit; and that ripening in Novem- 
ber and December is nearly as good. The fruit of these three 
months constitutes the most abundant crops as well as the 
best fruit. The June blossoms produce fruit which ripens in 
January and February, and is of second quality. The July 
blossoms usually fall off, and little notice is taken of them. 
Blossoms in August give fruit in March, which is of poor 
qualit}'; while September blooms give fair quality lemons, 
which are gathered in April and May, and are very valuable 
on account of the season. Trees which blossom in October, 
November, and December produce what are known as 
bastards, or poor quality lemons, which are gathered in June, 
July, and August. 

The Lemon Harvest.— The grower bases his calculations 
on the October to December crop, and the first gathering of 
the lemon harvest is made in October. Many of the lemons at 
this time are not ripe, and care is taken to pick only those 
which are fully three inches in diameter. All under that size 
are left for the November gathering. Practiced gatherers 
gauge the fruit with the thumb and second finger. This first 
crop is the most valuable, and is very carefully selected and 
packed for immediate shipment. 

The second gathering takes place in November, and is as 
good as that of October. If properly gathered, selected, and 
packed, it Avill keep for months. The fruit is lighter in color 
and harder to the touch than the October gathering. The 
pickers gather all fruit which is ripe, whatever its size, and all 
fruit which has reached the standard size, whether ripe or not. 
The first quality fruit not immediately salable is often put 
away in cases until March, wlien it is repacked and will keep 
for some time. All small or damaged fruit is used for making 
oil of lemon, citric acid, or candied lemon peel, which indus- 
tries will be described farther on. The November fruit is 
especially valuable for essences, citric acid, and lemon juice. 
In a well-cared-for lemon grove I was informed that from 
three fourths to seven eighths of the fruit was suitable for 
shipment, the rest being used for essences, etc. 

The fruit gathered in December on the plains and lower lands 
near Palermo is inferior to that gathered in November, only 



220 ■ STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

about five eighths being suitable for export, the balance being 
used for peel and essences. 

The January fruit is of still less value, only three eighths 
being fit for packing. The fruit gathered at this time is fully 
ripe and, quite yellow. The inferior fruit of this month's 
gathering is largely cut into halves, packed in brine, and 
exported for lemon-peel making. 

The balance of the crop is gathered in February, and is 
called ''old fruit." It is of inferior quality. Nothing is now 
left on the tree except the green fruit from the August blos- 
soms. Fully three fourths of the February gathering is used 
for essence, acid, and peel. 

Out-of-Season Crops. — I was much struck with what are 
called out-of-season, or extraordinary, crops. In one grove I 
visited, one half was bearing a fine crop of lemons ready for 
the second gathering. On the other half there was hardly a 
ripe lemon, but the trees were carrying a good crop of fruit 
about one fourth grown. I found that it was a fairly common 
practice to force the trees into bearing such crops. Sometimes 
peculiar climatic conditions will do it, but usually it is the 
result of special cultivation and irrigation. If trees are 
deprived of irrigation during the hot months of July and 
August, and then abundantly w^atered in September, a prolific 
amount of blossom will generally result, producing a valuable 
May crop. This can not be done every year, for the tree suffers 
from the deprivation mentioned, and takes a season to recover 
its normal condition. Still, the May fruit being of fairly good 
quality and valuable on account of the demand, realizing as 
much as 30s. and 40s. for one thousand lemons, the temptation 
to force crops is considerable, the price compensating for the 
scanty succeeding crop. 

GATHERING, PACKING, AND STORING LEMONS. 

In the preceding pages I have dealt at considerable length 
with the general features of the cultivation of the lemon tree 
in order to produce the splendid fruit for which Sicily is so 
famous. So important is this industry that the British Consul 
at Rome says that four fifths of the total lemon and orange 
trade of Italy is confined to the Island of Sicily. The magni- 
tude of the trade, nearly the half of which was, until a few 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY — GATHERING, ETC. 221 

years since, with the United States, is (]ue to the inherent 
quality of the fruit, owing to the peculiarly favorable climate, 
the care paid to the cultivation of the tree, and the skill and 
care of the Sicilian in handling the fruit. I have often been 
asked how the lemons are cured in Sicily in order to keep so 
long and well. People can hardly realize the truth that, in 
the sense understood by the questioners, they are hardly cured 
at all. 

A Succession of Crops. — All Sicilian lemons will not keep. 
Lemon trees bear a series of crops, there being, however, a 
main crop of the finest and best quality fruit. It is the best of 
this crop only that will keep well and long. 

I have described how the lemon is grown on varied series of 
soils and at different altitudes, from sea-level to 3,000 feet up 
the mountainous interior of the island. As the main crop 
ripens on the sea coast from October to Decem])er, and the 
same crop continues to mature later and later as we ascend the 
mountains, I may state that the main crop is ripening in 
different districts from October to February. Then it must be 
remembered that the good fruit will hang on the trees without 
serious loss of quality for three months, so that it may be 
stated that the chief lemon harvest may be extended from 
October to May. It is, however, not considered good, for either 
the fruit or the trees, to allow the lemons to hang too long, 
because the fruit will keep better if properly packed and stored. 
In this connection it must be remembered that the weather 
during all these months is cool, and that is, next to care in 
picking and handling, the most essential condition for success 
in keeping lemons — or indeed any fruit. 

Keeping Qualities Depend on Soil, etc. — I must not omit 
to mention that the keeping qualities of lemons depend a 
good deal on the soil and situation in which they are grown. 
Lemons grown on light, sandy soil deteriorate quickly. They 
get dry and spongy, and will not stand shipment well. On 
the other hand, lemons grown on loamy clay, or loam with 
well-drained clay subsoils, such as predominate in the moun- 
tainous lemon districts, keep much better. So great is this 
influence that lemons grown on these soils sell at one third 
higher price than those grown on the sandy land. " Moun- 
tain," i. e., fruit grown on the loamy soils with clay subsoil, is 



222 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

firmer and keeps better. Fruit-dealers mark the best fruit 
"M," meaning "Mountain." Here is a sample quotation, 
which indicates the difference in price of the different grades: 
" Mountain," 25 to 50 lire per 1,000; " Hilly," 21 to 27 lire per 
1,000; "Plains/' 17 lire per 1,000. I may, in this connection, 
here repeat that the ideal situation for a lemon grove is on 
"deep loamy clay land, well drained, open, and exposed to the 
rays of the sun all the year, trees planted in rows running 
north and south, sheltered from strong winds and frosts, water 
always available." 

How Lemons are Handled. — I was fortunate in being in 
Sicily during the gathering of the main crop, and therefore 
saw the lemons at their best. I knew care was taken in 
handling the fruit, but I was hardly prepared to find how 
much. In connection with many cultural operations the use 
of such implements as the Planet cultivators, in the hands of 
intelligent Australian workmen, and drawn by our horses, will 
more than compensate for the cheap labor of the Mediter- 
ranean; but when it comes to handling fruit, the cost of labor 
is simply prohibitive of the same care and attention. The 
wages paid are, for men. Is. 3d. to Is. lOd. a day; for women, 
3d. to 6d. The Sicilian handles lemons as gently as eggs, from 
custom, and he does it quickly. But let me describe what I 
saw of the picking and handling of lemons for export. I could 
not follow the one parcel of fruit; but as I saw each operation 
repeated, I think my description is in every general particular 
correct. 

Picking. — The picking is done by men, women, and girls. 
The pickers have small wicker baskets, holding from one and 
a half to two gallons, and lined with soft canvas like bran 
bagging, in the form of a bag hardly resting on the bottom. 
They pick the lemons with the fingers, breaking off from one 
to three inches of the twig with the lemon. In going over the 
trees they take — (1st) All lemons, no matter how green, which 
are three inches in diameter, and three and one half ounces in 
weight or over. The pickers learn to judge the size and weight 
with wonderful accuracy, using the thumb and finger as a 
gauge. (2d) All lemons which are turning yellow, whether 
they reach the standard or not. 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY — GATHERING, ETC. 223 

Snipping and First Grading. — The pickers take their 
baskets to the roadways, where the foreman sits with several 
women and a number of baskets of about a bushel capacity 
lined with canvas. The lemons are taken one by one from the 
pickers' baskets, and the stem is snipped off close with the 
same pattern of snips used by lemon-gatherers in California 
and Mildura. If apparently perfect, and of large size, it goes 
into No. 1 basket; if perfect but smaller, into No. 2; and so on, 
about four grades being made. The defective or lower quality 
fruit goes off at once, and is used for extracting oil of lemon, or 
making citric acid or lemon peel. 

Drying. — The good fruit of first or second grade is at once 
taken to the fruit house, where it is spread out on the floor (if 
the floor be stone, mats are spread over it). The depth and 
length of time they remain depend on circumstances. The 
object is to allow the moisture to evaporate from the skin, but 
care must be taken that the lemons in the bottom layer do not 
heat. They may be piled from one to three feet, and remain 
from twenty-four hours up to six days. 

Sorting and Wrapping for Market. — When dry, the 
lemons are carefully sorted over, all defective fruit being put 
aside. The sound lemons are wrapped in tissue paper, care- 
fully packed in boxes, and taken to the warehouse of the 
merchants, who may either store the fruit or ship it. 

Storing Lemons. — If fruit is to be stored it is kept in cool 
stores, and carefully gone over every three weeks. Each lemon 
is unwrapped, examined, and if sound rewrapped and put back, 
but if it shows any signs of not keeping it is taken away. I 
believe lemons are also stored in dark underground grottos or 
cellars without being wrapped and cased, but I did not see one. 
When this method is adopted, I understand the fruit is gone 
over every week or two, so that, put into a sentence, the art of 
preserving lemons in Sicily is to handle them frequently with 
care, and remove all showing signs of decay. 

Packing for Export. — I had much difficulty in gratifying 
my determination to see the operation of packing for shipment. 
This was in marked contrast to the freedom I was allowed in 
visiting the orchards and watching all operations there, in- 
cluding the drying and packing for market. I felt that the 



224 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

excuses made were not genuine, and at Palermo waited a full 
week over my time for departure in order to break down the 
opposition which had hitherto baffled me. At length I obtained 
free entry to several packing-houses and was able to take several 
photographs of the well-built, well-lighted, beautifully clean, 
conveniently arranged packing rooms of Senor B. Mercadante. 
I should say that I was greatly indebted to this courteous 
gentleman for many kindnesses and much information. At 
the time of my visit (beginning of January), the best lemons 
were coming from the interior, although I saw splendid fruit 
being gathered in the hills about ten miles from Palermo. 
The price quoted then was 7s. a case of 300, C. I. F. to New 
York. The price paid in Palermo for mountain lemons, he 
said, varied from 7s. to 16s. per 1,080. Mr. A. P. Brown, the 
representative of the Bronte estates, and manager of the Palermo 
ice works, Mr. Seymour, the American Consul, and Mr. Weiner, 
the genial proprietor of the Hotel de France, also assisted me 
greatly. A drive and picnic with the latter to his wine cellars 
and chateau at Pareo, in the mountains, is one of the most 
pleasant of my recollections. 

I am, of course, all through describing the preparation of the 
best lemons which have made the name of Sicily famous. When 
lemons are to be exported they are taken either direct from the 
lemon groves, or from the stores, as described, to the packing- 
houses. Here the boxes are opened, the lemons unwrapped and 
carefully examined. The sorters are experts. A lemon with a 
blemish which could not be distinguished except as the result 
of continued practice, is at once detected and put aside. The 
fruit is regraded, because from the time of gathering it has 
shrunk considerably. 

The work is thus divided: (1st) Girls unpack and unwrap 
the lemons, putting them into lined baskets; (2d) The expe- 
rienced graders (men) sort them, putting them into other 
baskets; (3d) Another set of girls wrap them in fresh tissue 
paper; (4th) Boys carry the baskets to the packers; (5th) Ex- 
pert packers pack them into the various sized boxes required 
by the different markets. This packing is one of the smartest 
and cleverest things I have seen in connection with any branch 
of the fruit industry. The fruit is handled with particular 
care, but is packed very closely. As the box becomes full it is 
noticed that the fruit in the middle is higher than at the sides, 



THE SICILIAN LEMON INDUSTRY — GATHERING, ETC. 



225 



and when the last layer of lemons is put on, the outside fruit 
stands about half an inch above the sides of the box, but the 
middle is fully three inches above. The boxes are made of 
very thin beech wood, and in order to make them hold together 
wooden hoops are nailed over. It requires much skill to 
fasten down the lids, for it involves the bending of the cover, 
and the elasticity of the wood is sufficient to occasionally 
draw out the nails. When nailed down this elasticity pre- 
vents any movement of the fruit, and allows for shrinkage, 
which is, however, not great after the lemons have been 







Assorling and packing lemons in Sicily, showing lined baskets used for the purpose. 

stored. Lemons cut in November and packed three hundred 
in a box will by February have shrank so that three hundred 
and sixty will pack into the same box. It is this November 
crop (ripening in November near the coast, and on to Febru- 
ary on the mountains) which keeps the best, so that shipments 
of it are frequently made to New York up to May. It is this 
crop, but not usually the first grade of it, which is sent to 
Australia. 

The subject dealt with in this chapter is of considerable 
importance, and I regret that my inquiries have not enabled 
me to give readers a simple, cheap recipe for storing lemons 
15c 



226 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

from September to January in South Australia. It can be done 
easily enough with the aid of cool chambers; and provided 
lemons of the desired quality are plentiful and cheap, it should 
pay to do so. If my conclusions that our lemon country will 
yet be found in the hills, or southeast, be correct, it may be that 
grottos may be tunneled into the hills, where the fruit can be 
kept at a temperature not exceeding 60° Fahr. until midsummer. 
In the cool chambers they should be kept at 40° to 45° Fahr. 

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON. 

Lemon Juice. — There are two qualities, "agro crudo," which 
is the natural juice of the lemon, and "agro cotto," which is 
the juice in concentrated form, and keeps much better than the 
other. The juice after being pressed from the poorer quality 
lemons is left to settle for a time. It is then boiled in large 
tinned copper pans one third full. While boiling it is fre- 
quently stirred with an iron rod having the knob end wrapped 
in canvas to prevent it damaging the bottom of the copper, and 
to keep the sediment from sticking. As the quantity decreases 
the coppers are replenished from supplementary coppers, kept 
hot for the purpose, so that the process of evaporation shall not 
be checked. When the required density is attained it is poured 
into vats to cool, and is finall}^ drawn off into casks for export. 
The original volume is reduced by this process to about one 
eighth, and the concentrated liquid should contain about thirty 
per cent of citric acid. 

Citrate of Lime. — Until recently the manufacture of citric 
acid was almost neglected in Sicily; but of late years the 
industry has been developed to a greater extent. Still most of 
the lemon juice is either sent away in the concentrated form 
above described, or is changed into citrate of lime, this sub- 
stance being readily made and is easily carried. The value of 
the citrate depends largely on the purity of the chalk employed. 
"The concentrated juice is first clarified with whites of eggs, 
and warmed. It is then drawn off and filtered into tinned 
boilers, in which it is heated nearly to boiling point and 
thoroughly saturated with finely powdered chalk, which is 
added gradually to the liquid while it is being continuously 
stirred until the efiervescence caused by the admixture of the 



MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON. 227 

carbonate of lime has ceased, when the deposit of citrate will 
be approximately complete; the remaining residue of acid citrate, 
is reduced with lime milk. The liquid is now drawn off, and 
the solid, insoluble citrate is compressed and dried." 

Oil of Lemon. — Every one is familiar with "essence of lemon," 
but comparatively few know that the "essence" is really spirits 
of wine, in which is dissolved a greater or less proportion of 
oil of lemon, obtained from the rind of lemons. If a fresh 
lemon be examined, it will be found that the skin contains 
vast numbers of oil cells, and when the rind is cut off and 
bent the oil is seen to fly off in minute drops. The separation 
and collection of this oil is one of the important industries of 
Sicily. 

Practically the work is done entirely by hand, and is carried 
on at night-time, because, I believe, the oil is so delicate that a 
very brief exposure to sunlight causes it to oxidize, and so lose 
its delicate aroma. 

Fruit intended for the manufacture of oil of lemon need not 
be of the first quality; but it is necessary that it be outwardly 
and inwardly sound, healthy, and fresh, so that punctured 
fruit, windfalls, and defective fruit are used for manufacturing 
lemon juice, and not for oil of lemon. The lemons are so sliced 
that the rind is to a large extent freed from the pulp, and is in 
fairly large but not unwieldy pieces. I do not know whether 
my experience is in any way unusual, but I found very great 
difficulty in obtaining admission to an oil of lemon factory. 
Time after time I tried and failed; but at last I w^as able to 
make a bargain with a Sicilian merchant, who desired to open 
up trade, to give him the information and introduction he 
desired on condition that he obtained permission to visit, and 
acted as my guide to, one or two oil of lemon factories. It 
may be that I did not see the best, for they were not the 
cleanest places I have seen; and, indeed, were in marked con- 
trast to some of the lemon-packing stores. The very strong 
smell of ammonia indicated a sanitary condition not desirable. 

I found that the sliced rind was first soaked for perhaps 
twenty minutes in cold water, it being considered that this 
renders the expression of the oil more easy. The workmen 
sit in rows, each with a small glazed earthenware dish on his 
knees and a larger vessel of lemon rind at his side. In his 



228 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

left hand he holds a small sponge, and with his right hand he 
picks up the piece of rind and, with a deft circular movement, 
rotates it against the sponge, at the same time bending it 
backward to break the oil glands, and so force the oil onto 
the sponge. The operation is very quickly done, but when 
performed by a skilled hand completely exhausts the supply 
of oil of lemon. When the sponge is saturated it is squeezed 
into the bowl. There is at first a large proportion of lemon 
juice, etc., with the oil; but this sinks to the bottom and the 
oil is poured off, filtered, and as quickly as possible put into 
copper "carboys" for .exportation. The method of payment 
is, as a rule, peculiar, each workman being paid in proportion 
to the weight of oil he extracts from each thirty-five kilos of 
rinds. 

Salted Lemons. — Walking along the wharf the day after 
my arrival in Palermo, I saw some hundreds of large 
.casks, which, I was informed, were filled with salted lemons. 
Further inquiries showed that large quantities of lemons are 
exported in this form to Leghorn, Genoa, Britain, and other 
parts of Europe, to America, and even to Australia, chiefly for 
making candied lemon peel. Although the finest fruit is never 
thus dealt with, lemons to be salted must of necessity be sound. 
The fruit is usually halved, and then soaked in salt water for 
from three to seven days prior to shipment. On arrival at its 
destination it is soaked in fresh water repeatedly until all the 
brine is removed. The salt preserves the peel satisfactorily, 
but removes the essential oil, so that the fine flavor of the 
fresh lemon is quite lost. For this reason only fruit which 
can not be used on the island or profitably shipped fresh is 
dealt with in this way. The fruit is halved merely to insure a 
thorough preservation of the rind by an equal saturation of the 
inner and outer surfaces. 

Candied Lemon Peel. — As far as I could learn, no candied 

lemon peel is prepared in Sicily. In "The Sayings of Agur" 

it is written — 

"There be three thingts which are too wonderful for me ; 
Yea, four, which I know not : 
The way of an eagle in the air; 
The way of a serpent upon a rock ; 
The way of a ship in the midst of the sea ; 
And the way of a man with a maid." — Proverbs. 



MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF THE LEMON. 229 

To these I would add the way of trade on the sea, for there 
appears to be no known law by which one can understand why 
certain industries establish themselves in given localities. 
Why, for example, should the candied citron and lemon peel 
industry become centered in Leghorn? The lemons and citrons 
are all imported from Corsica, Sicily, Calabria, and even from 
Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco. The fuel comes from England, 
the sugar is imported from Egypt, the wood for the boxes from 
Trieste, and the earthenware vessels from Florence. The peel 
is sent away to Britain, Germany, America, etc. I can not 
learn of any special advantage which Leghorn possesses; but 
there this particular branch of the candied fruit industry is 
centered, and so it is necessary to leave Sicily for a time with 
the salted lemons and note the treatment they receive in 
Leghorn. 

The first process is the separation of the fruit from the rind. 
Women sit around a big vessel, skillfully gouge out the pulp 
with the thumb and forefinger, and throw the rind into a 
vessel ready to receive it. The rind is then soaked for several 
days in cold, fresh water to remove the salt. It is then boiled 
in copper vessels for one or two hours for the double purpose 
of removing any remaining salt and softening the rind. It 
should now be soft enough to absorb the sugar readily. 

The absorption of sugar takes fully eight days, for the essen- 
tial principle is that the process must be ver}^ gradual and 
slow. To this end it is first treated with a weak solution, 
but as the process goes on the solution may be gradually 
strengthened, for the power of absorption grows. Fresh rind 
absorbs with great difficulty; and if at once plunged into 
strong syrup the process is slow and irregular, whereas if 
repeated at once with d strong solution it becomes permeated 
with that, and further absorption is more easy. I have 
repeated this because it is the essential principle in making 
candied peel or candied fruits. 

The candying-room is fitted with rows of immense earthen- 
ware vessels, after the fashion of the ancient wine jars of the 
Romans, These are perhaps four feet high and thirty inches 
in diameter, with short necks and wide mouths. For description, 
the jars may be grouped into sets of eight, and as what goes 
on in one set goes on in all other sets, it will save confusion to 
consider the room as having only eight jars. As each jar will 



230 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

hold many hundred pounds of syrup and peel, the workmen 
find it easier to manipulate the syrup than the peel. Each jar 
is furnished with a simple perforated wooden well, in which a 
simple suction pump is inserted, so that the syrup can be 
pumped from one jar into the adjoining one. 

Supposing jar No. 1 is the one which has just been filled 
with peel brought direct from the copper boiler before men- 
tioned, then No. 8 will contain peel in the last stage of candying. 
A syrup of thirty degrees strength by the particular densometer 
used is prepared and poured into jar No. 8. Here it remains 
for a day, and then having been weakened by the amount 
absorbed by the peel, it is pumped into No. 7, and next day 
from there into No. 6, and so on, so that when it comes 
to No. 1 it is weak, as is required by new peel. At each 
operation the density is tested, and should it get too weak it is 
strengthened. In this way the process is to a large extent 
self-regulating. 

A slight fermentation often takes place in the jars, and this 
is considered beneficial if it is not allowed to go too far. 

After the eighth day the fruit is removed from the jar, and 
boiled in a syrup of a density of forty degrees in large copper 
vessels over slow coke fires, the peel being gently stirred with a 
wooden paddle to prevent its adhering to the vessel. 

When taken from the fire it is spread on coarse wire netting 
over wooden troughs, into which the surplus syrup drains 
while the peel dries. 

The final operation is the candying, or covering the surface 
with candied sugar. For this purpose sugar is dissolved in a 
little water in a copper boiler, and the dry peel is immersed 
and boiled for a short time over a slow fire. It is poured from 
the coppers onto the wire, and again dried, the sugar this time 
forming candy or crystals over the surface, and it is ready for 
the packing-room. 

Citric Acid. — This is manufactured from the citrate of lime. 
The citrate is mingled with a liquid composed of six parts of 
water and one part of pure sulphuric acid. The latter decom- 
poses the citrate of lime, unites with the lime to form sulphate 
of lime, or gypsum, and liberates the citric acid in solution in 
the water, from which it is separated by evaporation in pans. 
The crystals are afterward redissolved, and purified with animal 
carbon and hydrochloric acid. 



THE CITRON IN CALIFORNIA. 



231 



THE CITRON. 

Citrus medica cedra, Linn. 



The citron grows and fruits well in California wherever the 
lemon thrives. The tree is easy of culture, and the preparation 
of the rind simple, 
therefore there is 
hardly any reason 
why the California- 
grown citron, were 
it accorded the same 
protection that the 
orange and lemon 
now have, should 
not supplant the 
imported. 

The fruit of the 
citron is generally 
oblong, or of conical 
shape and swollen, 
more or less striped 
or furrowed, and 
particularly large. 
The skin is of the 
color of the lemon, 
and is very aromatic. 
Some varieties are 
very smooth, while 
others are covered 
with warty excres- 
cences and very 
thick and highly 
scented. The pulp is less acid than that of the lemon, and 
quite bitter. The flowers with their delicious perfume are 
purplish outside and white within; leaves subserrate; young 
branches violet tinged. The tree blooms at all seasons of the 
year, and is very susceptible to frost, as much so as the lime. 




The Citron— I'RIMAL Type. (Citrus cedra vulyan.i.) 



232 



STATE BOAED OF HORTICULTURE. 



Most varieties of the citron have " two rinds," i. e., the outer 
one, thin, with miliary glands full of very fragrant oil; the 
inner, thick and white, very sweet and agreeable. It is for 
this inner rind that the citron is valued, and it is used exten- 
sively in cookery, both in its candied and preserved forms. 



PROPAGATION. 

The propagation of the citron is quite simple, and is multi- 
plied by cuttings, by budding, or grown from the seed. The 

cuttings are planted in the 
spring of the year. They 
are cut from one or two year 
old wood and from eight to 
fourteen inches long, vary- 
ing in thickness from the size of 
a lead pencil to one or more 
inches in diameter. They read- 
ily take root and can be moved 
to orchard form in the spring 
following, but are generally left 
two years in the nursery in order 
to obtain a better 
and stronger root- 
system. 

The citron takes 
readily on stock of any of the citrus 
fruits, but being susceptible to the 
gum disease should be budded at 
least a foot from the ground, so that 
it may not emit roots of its own. 
The best time to bud the citron is 
in the spring, just as the stocks 
begin to put forth and the sap flows 
freely. Buds inserted early in the 
season start with vigor, and by fall 
have a large and thrifty top. 

The citron root is quite delicate 
and brittle, more so than that of the lemon. While the cutting 
system is one of the quickest ways to grow the citron, budding 
on hardier stocks, such as the sweet orange, is most preferable. 




Fruiting branch of the citron — 
reduced. 



234 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



From Seed. — The seeds of the citron germinate quite easily, 
but much care is required to be successful in raising seedlings. 
After the seed is washed out of the fruit it is kept moist and 
never allowed to get dry, for in drying the kernel loses its power 
of germination. The seed is planted in the spring after all 
danger of frost has passed, either in prepared seed-beds or in 
boxes. It is sown broadcast and covered with an inch of leaf 
mould mixed with sand. Great care must be taken from this 
time on that the soil be kept moist and yet not too wet, as the 
seeds rot easily. The seeds germinate in about a month, or 
longer if the weather be cold. The following spring the plants 
are planted in nursery row. 

VARIETIES. 

Numerous varieties have been introduced, many of which 
are yet in the experimental state. 

Lemon, or Sorrento (Plate XXII). — This variety was among 
the first introduced, and has fruited regularly ever since. 
Shape oblong, like the lemon, with a very pleasant aroma, 
which is much esteemed. Skin bright yellow, smooth and very 
glossy; inner skin white, coarse and thick, with very little 
trace of bitterness. Pulp very bitter and deficient in juice. 
The fruit grows irregularly, some very large and others very 
small, the largest weighing from three to five (or more) pounds 
each. 

Lyman. — A Florida variety, said to be very good. 

Orange. — A round citron. 

Other varieties grown here: 



Pomo de Adamo 


Testa de Turco 


Dulcis 


Sulcata 


Macrocarpo 


Limonzania 


Florentina 


Costata 


Incompio 


Cornuta 


Elongata 


Glabra 


Pireltone 


Salodiana 


Rugosa 


Simoniformis 


Cedro Vara 


Plena 


Rom ana 


Parra 



PREPARATION OF CITRON RIND. 

The fruit before assuming a yellow color, and also when bright 
yellow, is picked and placed in barrels filled with brine, and 
left for at least a month. The brine is renewed several times, 
and the fruit allowed to remain in it until required for use, 
often for a period of four or five months. When the citrons are 



COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE CITRON. 



235 



to be candied they are taken from the barrels and boiled in fresh 
water to soften them. They are then cut into halves, the seed 
and pulp are removed, 
and the fruit is again 
immersed in cold 
water, soon becoming 
of a greenish color. 
After this it is placed 
in large earthen jars, 
covered with hot syr- 
up, and allowed to 
stand about three 
weeks. During this 
time the strength of 
the syrup is gradually 
increased. The fruit 
is then put into boil- 
ers with crystallized 
sugar dissolved in a 
small quantity of 

water, and cooked; then allowed to cool, and boiled again 
until it will take up no more sugar. It is then dried and 
packed in wooden boxes. 




Cross-section of citron, showing pulp and thickness 
of rind— reduced one half. 



COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE. 

So far the citron consumed in the United States is imported 
from Europe. Most of it is shipped to Eastern houses and by 
them prepared for market. In this way importers avoid the 
payment of a dut}^ on same. The citron commonly used by 
confectioners, bakers, and candy-makers is imported already 
prepared. 

For several years there have been regular importations of 
citron in brine coming in large hogsheads, almost entirely from 
Leghorn. It has come to two houses in New York and to four 
houses in Chicago, all of whom put it through the process of 
candying or sugaring. It costs about four cents a pound 
landed in New York in the brine. I am informed that the 
yearly demand for the United States equals about 12,000 cases 
of some 250 pounds each after it has been candied. 



236 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

In answer to an inquiry regarding importations and pros- 
pective competition from California-prepared citron, the 
following interesting data were obtained: 

Chicago, August 23, 1899. 
Mr. B. M. Lelong, Sacramento, Cal.: 

Dear Sir: Yours of Isfc received and contents fully noted. The citron 
that we import to this country is mostly grown on the isle of Corsica, some 
being shipped from Messina, Italy, and some from Greece, but that shipped 
from those countries is not considered as good as that which is shipped from 
Corsica. The price generally rules from 12 shillings and 6 pence up to 18 
shillings and 6 pence, cost and freight, N. Y. We do not know of any citron 
grown in this country. It wovild be a saving to the trade west of the Rocky 
Mountains, but it would not be if shipped east of the Rocky Mountains, as 
the freight would be more than the freight from the isle of Corsica. 

Yours truly, 

SPRAGUE, WARNER & CO. 

Chicago, August 16, 1899. 
Horticultural Department, State Board of Horticiolture, Sacramento, Cal. : 

Gentlemen : Your letter regarding citron has been handed the writer, 
who is manager of our citron department. 

The amount of citron imported annually into America is about two 
thousand tons. The firms who are curing or manufacturing citron from raw 
citrons that are imported in brine are: Hills Bros. Company, New York 
City ; Andrew L. Causse, New York City. The Chicago manufacturers are 
Sprague, Warner & Co., Franklin MacVeagh & Co., J. B. Inderrieden & Co., 
and ourselves. 

The best quality of citron is raised in Corsica, the next best quality in 
Greece, and the poorest in Sicily. We understand the culture of citron is 
very difficult and that the trees require the most constant care and attention, 
and even then failures of crop are frequent. As to whether it can be pro- 
duced successfully in California is of course a question that we can not 
answer. This is about all the information that we can think of that would 
be of service to you. 

Yours verv trulv, 

REID, MURDOCH & CO. 

New York, August 12, 1899. 
B, M. Lelong, Secretary State Board of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal,: 

Dear Sir: In due course of mail we received your esteemed favor of 28th 
ult., relative to citron, and in reply can tell you that for several years there 
have been regular importations of citron in brine coming in large hogsheads, 
almost entirely from Leghorn. It came to two houses in this city and to 
three or four houses in Chicago, all of whom put it through a process and 
candied (glac6) and sugared it. We understand it costs about four cents a 
pound landed here in the brine, and there is no duty on it. The demand for 
this whole country yearly, we are told, equals about 12,000 cases of some 250 
pounds each after it has been candied. We are unable to ascertain whether 
it is a profitable business or not, although one would judge that it would not 
have been continued during late years if it had been found unprofitable. 
One of our informants, a man pretty well posted, says he does not believe 
one penny profit is made, but none of these people care to give it up, hoping 
for better times, etc. 



COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE CITRON. 



237 



Trusting that this is the information you desire to have, and always at 

your se'rvice, we remain, 

Very truly vours, 

SGOBEL & DAY. 

Chicago, Octoher 14, 1899. 
Mr. B. M. Lelong, Secretary Slate Board of Horticulture, Sacramento, Cal.: 

Dear Sir: We should have replied to yours of July 28th before this. 
However, we wanted to give you positive information as to whether there 
were any established houses in the East who were preparing the citron of com- 
merce for market. We are now in a position to inform you that this article, 
which is shipped from Europe in brine, is very small and shipped only as an 
experiment, which, as far as we can learn, has been a failure. The citron 
commonly used by confectioners, bakers, and candy-makers is imported 
already prejiared. This, however, should not prevent California growers from 
raising citron in that State in larger (juantities than they do now, and pre- 
jtaring it for market right in their own State. Like a great many industries, 
California would soon head the list as a citron-i>roducing State and would no 
dt)ubt at no distant date supply the demand of at least the United States. 

Yours truly, 

JOHN ZUCCA & CO. 




French method of protecting the limbs of tlie Citron and its fruit. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE XXIII. 




THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA. 



THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA — CHARACTERISTK S. 239 



THE LIME 

Citrus linietta, Risso. 



The lime is naturally a straggling bush or tree, and is 
frequently trimmed into hedge form; it grows from ten to fif- 
teen feet high. The fruit is small, round or ovate, or depressed, 
with a bitter rind. The juice is much "sharper" than that of 
the lemon. 

The lime is more susceptible to injury from frost than the 
lemon, and should not be planted except in locations absolutely 
free from danger of frost, and on this account it is not grown 
successfully except in the warm belts and sheltered localities. 

Since the Government placed a duty of one cent per pound 
on foreign citrus fruits, very few limes are imported. This 
should stimulate the planting of the lime in our suitable 
localities. 

The lime is very easily propagated from seed. The seeds 
always germinate without much difficulty, and the plants 
come true from the seed; the seeds " sport " only in exceptional 
cases. It is also budded on the orange. 

The tree does not resent pruning as the lemon does, and may 
be fashioned into any shape to please the fancy of the grower. 
It is well, however, to consider the natural habit of the tree 
and to leave it as much in bush form as possible. The lower 
limbs that rest on the ground and all superfluous and interfer- 
ing wood should be removed. 

The methods of planting and cultivating the lime are similar 
to those required for the lemon. Like the latter, the fruit 
should be picked before it ripens, but does not require process- 
ing before being shipped to market. Lime trees are planted 
fifteen or sixteen feet apart, and begin to bear at the fourth 
year, being in full bearing at eight. 



240 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 




Imperial Lime— natural size. 



VARIETIES. 

Imperial. — Fruit large, about the size of the Genoa lemon, 

with strong acid, few 
seeds. Tree tender, 
wood brittle, but very- 
productive and a good, 
thrifty grower; fruits 
all the year round; not 
as thorny as the Mexi- 
can, and not as suscep- 
tible to frost. 

Mexican. — Fruit 
small, very popular, 
identical with the im- 
ported limes in our mar- 
kets. Tree dwarf, and 
suitable for hedges, but 
very susceptible to cold. 
Tahiti. — Fruit large, coarse, and of inferior quality. 
Pear-Shaped. — Fruit large, pyriform, of a pale yellow color, 
with smooth, thin skin, and a strong aroma, partaking of the 
shaddock. Pulp juicy, 
with strong acid; seeds 
few and small. Tree very 
large and hardy — orna- 
mental sort, undoubtedly 
a " sport." Grown by 1 
A. Castleman, of River- 
side. 

Bearss. — A superb vari- 
ety, seedless or almost so. 
Fruit large, about the size 
of the Imperial, nearly 
round, with a thin, tough 
skin. Flesh tender and 
very juicy, acid somewhat 
mild. Grown by J. T. 
Bearss, of Porterville. 

Miscellaneous Varieties.— The following varieties have 
been introduced in recent years, principally from Florida: 




Cross-section of Imperial Lime— natural size. 



THE LIME IN CALIFORNIA — VARIETIES. 



241 



Jewish. — A small conical lime. 

Genoese. — Large, like a lemon in shape. 

Florentine. — Hybrid. 

Monster. — Fruit extra large, resembles a lemon. 

Salo, — A small, round lime. 

Persian. — A large, coarse lime; inferior. 

Citronella. — A large, coarse lime, with thick rind. 

Assam. — Said to be a strong grower, 

Florida Seedling. — A large lime, the size of a lemon, quite 
coarse. 

Other Varieties. — Valentine, Knatta, Kaghazir, Sour Kurna, 
Sour Turan, Sour Rangpur, Sour Jamberi, Sour Galgal, Sada- 
phal, Verucene. 




Cross-section-of Bearss Lime— natural size. 



16c 



CITRUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 



PLATE XXIV 




Blossom of Double-Flowered Bergamot 
Orange, 
From which Neroli is manufactured. 



PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 



PKODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 243 



PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 



Although there are innumerable varieties of the citrus, 
which, owing to their inferiority, are worthless for cultivation, 
yet all, or nearly all, have merit in one way or another. In 
Europe every part of the tree is utilized for various purposes. 
The flower, the leaf, the pulp, the rind, the wood — all enter 
into articles of commerce. R. C. Haldane, in his work, 
"Subtropical Cultivations and Climate," London, 1886, gives 
the following formulas, which I quote, with due thanks to the 
author: 

"Orange -Flower Perfume. — In the early morning the 
blossoms are collected as soon as the petals begin to fall, by 
shaking the tree over a sheet spread on the ground. A tree 
yields from two to ten pounds of flowers. The perfume is 
generally extracted by enfleurage, as follows: A frame is 
required six feet high, thirty inches wide, and twenty inches 
deep; in this grooves are cut to allow trays one and a half 
inches deep to run. These trays are covered with wire gauze. 
Between every two trays there is a sheet of stout glass, framed; 
on this, grease or vaseline is thickly spread. The whole should 
be as air-tight as possible. Every morning fresh flowers must 
be put in the wire-gauze traps; and this is continued for a 
month or two, when the grease is removed. 

"The grease is made as follows: Melt equal parts of beef- 
suet and lard, or mutton-suet, beef-suet, and lard, well together. 
Pound well in a mortar and wash until perfectly clean. Melt 
over a slow fire, adding three ounces of powdered alum and a 
little salt to each hundredweight. Heat the grease until it 
begins to bubble, and then strain into a deep pan and let it 
clarify for two or three hours. The clear grease is then put on 
a charcoal fire, and three quarts of rose water and half a pound 
of powdered gum-benzoin added; it is gently boiled, and all 
scum taken off till it ceases to appear. Put the grease in deep 
pans to cool; when solid remove any water there may be in it, 
liquefy, and pour into vessels for future use. Besides grease. 



244 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

glycerine, vaseline, and paraffine are all used. Formerly, 
instead of using grease in enfleurage, oiled linen was employed 
to absorb the odor and afterward squeezed in a screw press. 

"A superior system is by employing Fiver's pneumatic frame, 
which has on the top two bellows which send a constant cur- 
rent of air through the flowers. The most primitive is the 
Spanish, which consists of two bowls — the upper one, or cover, 
being lined with grease, while the lower holds the flowers. 

"To extract the perfume from the grease, or 'pomade,' as it 
is called after being scented, chop up eight pounds of pomade, 
put it in one gallon of sixty over-proof alcohol, and let it remain 
for one month at summer heat. 

"Essence or Extract of Orange-Flower is prepared by 
tincturation. Four ounces of orange-flowers are steeped in one 
gallon of alcohol until all the perfume has been absorbed by 
the spirit. This preparation is also known as extract of neroli. 

"Essential Oils of Orange are expressed thus: The peel is 
cut from the pulp in three longitudinal slices, leaving the pulp 
in a triangular shape. The peel and pulp are kept separate. 
Next day the outer surface of the peel is bent convexly, and 
pressed four or five times against a flat sponge held in the left 
hand of the workman. From time to time the oil is squeezed 
from the sponge into a vessel, from which it is drawn after the 
watery fluid separates from the oil. Four hundred oranges yield 
from nine to fourteen ounces of oil. The pulp is distilled for 
the small amount of essential oil it contains. When lemons 
are thus treated, the pulp is pressed until the lemon juice 
is all extracted, and then distilled. 

"Petit-Grain Oil. —Prepared from young tender shoots and 
leaves of both Sweet and Seville oranges, the latter being most 
valuable. The oil is obtained by distillation with water. 

"Neroli, or Oil of Orange-Flower.— Obtained by distilling 
the flowers of the sweet and bitter orange with water. The 
bitter orange gives a superior oil. It is very fluid, is lighter 
than water, in which it is slightly soluble. One hundred 
pounds of flowers give from three to six ounces of neroli. It is 
generally adulterated with alcohol or essence of petit-grain. 
Essential oils of orange, lemon, or bergamot are better extracted 



PRODUCTS OF THE CITRUS. 245 

by aid of an implement known as the ecuelle apiques, a Raucer- 
shaped vessel of pewter about eight inches wide, with a lip on 
one side. The bottom is armed with numerous brass pins 
about half an inch high, which stand upward. The center has 
a tube five or six inches long, and half an inch in diameter, 
closed at the farthest end. The whole resembles a shallow 
funnel. The peel is rubbed against the pins by hand, and 
when the tube is full of oil it is emptied into another vessel. 

" The Peel of the Bitter Orange is used in medicine as an 
aromatic tonic, but more frequently for counteracting the 
nauseous taste of other medicines. The most common forms 
are syrup of orange, tincture of orange, and confection of orange. 

" Oil of Lemon. — It is extracted from green fruit by pressing 
the rind against a sponge, or by the ecuelle. An inferior oil is 
produced by rasping the peel of the fruit and distilling with 
water. One hundred fruit should yield from two and one half 
to three and one half ounces of oil. The lemons are sometimes 
scarified and thrown into hot water, and the oil skimmed off. 

"Citric Acid. — Is obtained from lemon juice by saturating 
it with chalk or whiting until eti'ervescence ceases, by which 
citrate of lime is formed. This is precipitated, the supernatant 
liquid run ofi", and the precipitate well washed. The precipi- 
tate is then treated with dilute sulphuric acid; sulphate of lime 
and citric acid are the results. The former sinks, and the clear 
solution is evaporated in leaden boilers and then crystallized — 
the crystals being purified by being again dissolved and re- 
crystallized." 

Uses to Which Lemons May Be Put— A firm of lemon- 
packers in Italy gives the following as among the uses to which 
lemons may be put: 

"During the last influenza epidemic in London, the Board of 
Health of said city advised the public to make free use of lemons 
to combat said epidemic. 

"A warm lemonade, taken in bed, will immediately produce 
an abundant perspiration, and a positive relief from a cold. 

"A few drops of fresh lemon juice added to drinking water 
will kill any microbes and greatly help digestion. 

"Lemons used in a bath will act as a disinfectant, clean the 
pores of the skin, hence revive their action. 



246 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

"Lemon juice is also universally known as one of the best 
remedies for rheumatism; and when diluted with warm water 
and salt and sniffed up the nostrils and used as a gargle is an 
excellent cure for catarrhal affections. 

" No cuisine is perfect without lemons, and this fruit is a 
necessary condiment to nearly all viands.". 

Orange Wine. — -Take one part orange juice, well strained, 
one part water, three pounds sugar per gallon. Any kind of 
sugar will do, and the darker the sugar the richer will be the 
color of the wine. For each ten gallons put up keep about one 
gallon of the same for refilling the casks during fermentation. 
Lay casks on the side, fill full, and leave bung open. Do not 
let it be exposed to much cold. Fill up the casks every day, 
from the quantity kept out, as the scum is thrown otf, and 
watch closely, until the wine passes through the stage of 
alcoholic fermentation. This will usually require from ten to 
twenty days, or longer, if the weather is cool, and can easily be 
determined by scum ceasing to rise, and the cessation of brisk 
fermentation. When it arrives at this stage, place the bung in 
loosely. Watch closely for a few days, and as active fermenta- 
tion ceases, put the bung in fast. Let it stand two months, 
then rack off carefully into clean casks. If perfectly clear, 
seal and let it stand six months, when it may be bottled. If 
not clear, it should be racked off a second time in two months 
after the first time, and sealed for six months before bottling. 
Be sure your casks are full, for contact with the air will cause 
the wine to pass into acetic fermentation. Considerable wine 
from oranges has been manufactured in Florida, and the 
demand for it has been very good at •I'S per gallon. The wine 
continues to improve with age. 

ESSENCES AND LEMON JUICE.* 

"Essences.— With three strokes of his sharp knife the cutter 
peels the lemon lengthwise and lets the peel fall into a tub 
under the chopping-block. He then cuts the lemon in two and 
throws it from his knife into a bucket. He works with wonder- 
ful rapidity and fills from ten to twelve tubs with peel a day 
and is paid 5 cents a tub, weighing 77 pounds. His left hand 
and right index are protected with bands of osnaburgs or 

* Report of Wallace S. Jones, of Messina, "Fruit Culture in Foreign 
Countries," 1890. 



PRODUCTS OP THE CITRUS. 247 

leather. Decayed fruit is not peeled, as its oil cells, being 
atrophied, yield no -essence. 

"Fresh peel is soaked in water fifteen minutes before the 
essence is extracted. Peel that has stood a day or two should 
remain in soak from thirty to forty minutes, that it may swell 
and offer a greater resistance against the sponge. The opera- 
tive holds a small sponge in his left hand, against which he 
presses each piece of i)eel two or three times — simple pressure 
followed by rotary pressure. The women employed in this 
work run a piece of cane through their sponges to enable them 
to hold them more .firmly. The outside of the peel is pressed 
against the sponge, as the oil glands are in the epicarp. The 
crushing of the oil cells liberates the essence therein contained. 
The sponge, when saturated with the essence, is squeezed into 
an earthenware vessel the operative holds in his lap. He is 
expected to press the peel so thoroughly as not to overlook a 
single cell. This is ascertained by holding the pressed peel to 
the flame of a candle; should it neither crackle nor diminish 
the brilliancy of the flame the cells are empty. This process 
yields besides the essence a small quantity of juice and feccia 
(dregs). The separation of the essence, juice, and feccia soon 
takes place if the vessels are not disturbed; the oil floats on 
the juice and the dregs fall to the bottom. These three products 
derived from the peel have no affinity with one another. As 
the essence rises to the surface it is skimmed off, bottled, and 
left to settle for a few days. It is then drawn off with a glass 
siphon into copper cans, which are hermetically sealed. 

"The yield of essence is very variable. This industry is 
carried on five months in the year. Immature fruit contains 
the most oil. From November to April, in the province of 
Messina, one thousand lemons yield about 14 ounces of essence 
and 17 gallons of juice. An operative expresses three baskets 
of lemon peel (weighing 190 pounds) a day, and is paid 20 
cents a basket. The essence is so valuable that the operatives 
are closely watched; they are most ingenious in secreting it 
about their persons. Six men work up eight thousand lemons 
a day; two cut off the peel while four extract the essence, and 
obtain 136 gallons of lemon-juice and seven pounds of essence. 
In the extraction of essence, defective fruit — thorn-pricked fruit, 
fruit blown down by the wind or attacked by rust — is used. This 
fruit is sold by the "thousand," equivalent to 260 pounds, and 



248 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

thus classified: First, mixed lemons, as they come from the 
groves during December and January, of good quality but not 
always marketable, often from top branches; second, lemons 
from March blooms; third, lemons refused at the packing- 
house; fourth, dropped fruit; fifth, shriveled or deformed fruit. 
Prices do not depend exclusively upon the classification of 
the fruit; the locality where it was grown is taken into consid- 
eration. Lemons grown on clay soil yield more essence and 
juice than those grown on sandy or rocky soil. The essence of 
sour orange, mixed with the essence of lemon, produces an 
aroma similar to that of the essence of bergamot; the latter is 
much used by confectioners in flavoring ice-creams, etc. 

"Raw and Concentrated Lemon Juice. — Lemons are peeled, 
cut in two, and pressed. If the juice is to be exported raw, 
only perfectly sound lemons can be used; but if the juice is to 
be boiled down, one fifth of the lemons may be of an inferior 
quality and two fifths of them pretty well decayed. The juice 
from sound lemons is yellowish in color, and gives a pleasant 
aroma; its density decreases with age. With all classes of 
lemons the yield of juice and its acidity vary considerably 
from month to month. The amount of juice increases from 
October to April, its acidity and density decrease, and the 
same is the case with the density of the essence, owing to the 
winter rains. 

"An addition of five per cent of alcohol will prevent raw 
lemon juice from spoiling. Lemon juice is adulterated with 
salt or tartaric acid. Raw and concentrated lemon juice is 
exported in casks of 130 gallons capacity. It requires 1,500 
lemons to yield 26 gallons of raw juice, while it takes 2,500 to 
yield the same quantity of concentrated juice, and 200,000, 
more or less, according to their acidity, to give a cask. 

"The value of lemon juice is governed by its acidity. The 
rule is that concentrated lemon juice shall show 60 degrees of 
acidity. (The juice extracted from the bergamot or the sour 
orange must show 48 degrees, or one fifth less than that 
•derived from the lemon; it also sells for one fifth less than 
lemon juice.) Formerly a citrometer, known as Rouchetti's 
gauge, was used to ascertain the per cent of acidity; now, how- 
ever, resort is had to chemical analysis, which is more satis- 
factory to both seller and buyer. Lemon juice is used in the 
printing of calicoes." 



ORANGE AND LEMON ROT. 249 



ORANGE AND LEMON ROT.^ 



The cause of the rot of oranges and lemons is the growth, 
through their substances, of a mold fungus known scientifically 
under the name of Penicillium digitatum. The growth of this 
plant within the fruit causes a softening and breaking down of 
the tissue, a very characteristic change in the flavor of the 
juice, and, sooner or later, a very pronounced discoloration of 
the affected part. The fungus belongs to a genus consisting of 
a number of well-known species, all having much the same 
manner of growth and producing decays on various substances. 
The name "blue mold" applies to the whole group. The best 
known species is Penicillium crustaceum, or, as it is more com- 
monly called, Penicillium glaucum. This species is one of the 
common forms of rot-producing fungi that attack deciduous 
fruits, but it is probably even better known from its attack 
upon all manner of substances in the household, such as cooked 
foods, clothing, etc. While Penicillium crustaceum is thus 
found in a great variety of situations, it appears that Penicillium 
digitatum attacks only citrus fruits, confining itself wholly to 
these. 

The rot of citrus fruit is not usually a disease of the orchard. 
In lemons the infection occurs almost entirely in the curing- 
house; and in oranges, as a rule, after they are packed and on 
their way to the East. Navel oranges, however, very often 
come into the packing-house badly infected by the disease. 
The trouble begins at the navel end, and may be scarcely 
visible from without; though commonly a slight split, or per- 
haps a little gum, will indicate the point of entrance of the 
fungus. In this case the trouble clearly arose in the field, and 
even began before the fruit was ripe. It is usually confined to 
a limited part of the fruit, perhaps the upper end of one or two 
sections, and very often produces spores within the cavity 
caused by the shrinkage of the affected tissue, so that the 
affected part may be badly discolored. In any citrus fruit a 

*By C. W. Woodworth, in University of California Bulletin No. 139. 



250 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

bad wound of the surface is apt to be followed by the develop- 
ment of the disease in the tissue just beneath, with the general 
characteristics specified above as occurring in Navels. 

In the packing-house or in transit the point of attack may 
be the navel end, but it is more commonly where two fruits are 
pressed together. Usually only one of the fruits so touching is 
affected at first, though after it becomes thoroughly rotted the 
disease usually communicates to the other. If the conditions 
are favorable to the growth of the fungus, it may spread from 
a single affected fruit to all those adjacent, and in time to the 
whole box. 

This disease, being entirely a matter of the fruit and belong- 
ing particularly to ripe fruit, evidently always gains its entrance 
to the fruit from the outside and never from the tree. The 
conditions necessary to accomplish this are: 

First — That the spore of the fungus should rest upon or near 
the surface of the fruit. It may be carried there by the wind, 
or by touching decayed fruit upon which the spores are being 
produced. 

Second — Sufficient water upon the surface of the fruit to 
cause the germination of the fungus. 

Third — The right condition of temperature. The fungus will 
grow in such a range of temperatures, however, that this con- 
dition may be considered to be practically always present. 

The germination of the spores of the fungus is thus seen to 
be much the same as the germination of the seed of a higher 
plant. 

The reason that the navel end is particularly liable to the 
attack of the rot fungus is that in case a drop of moisture finds 
its way within this structure, it is less liable to rapid evapora- 
tion, and so favors the germination of any spores that may also 
find their way there. The same explanation accounts for the 
common abundance of this fungus in fruit with broken skin. 
The point at which moisture will accumulate and remain 
longest when fruit is sweating after packing, or while it is 
stored in the packing- or curing-house, is the point where thfe 
fruit touches an adjacent fruit; and at this point, therefore, 
the germination of the fungus most commonly occurs. 

If sufficient refrigeration is maintained, the fruit will be 
entirely safe from the attack of the fungus; but the cold tem- 
perature is likely to condense a large amount of water upon 



ORANGE AND LEMON ROT. 251 

the fruit, and as soon as the temperature is allowed to rise to 
the point where the fungus can grow, the conditions are 
extremely favorable for its rapid germination. The presence 
of water upon the fruit is always essential for the entrance of 
the fungus; and if fruit taken from refrigeration is immediately 
thoroughly dried by arranging for sufficient ventilation, there 
would be no greater susceptibility on account of the cooling. 

The use of ventilated cars, or the ventilation of the curing- 
house, is chiefly calculated to prevent the rot by carrying off 
the moisture that may accumulate on the fruit in the sweating 
process, or on account of the rapid lowering of the temperature. 
The cooling that is accomplished by the evaporation of this 
moisture is sometimes thought to act like refrigeration, and 
may, it is true, slightly decrease the rate of growth of the fungus 
after it germinates, but can not produce a temperature low 
enough to prevent its germination and growth. Certainly, the 
important matter in ventilation is the rapid removal of any 
condensed moisture that may gather on the fruit. If this 
moisture is removed promptly enough, so as not to give time 
for the germination of this mold fungus, the fruit will not 
decay, but will stay sound until it would ultimately dry up 
and mummify. 

Wrapping in tissue paper is an extremely eflEicient means of 
decreasing danger from rotting. The reason for this is that 
the paper absorbs water very freely and will take up a very 
considerable quantity. The paper will have to become very 
wet before it will give up enough to the spores of the fungus to 
permit them to germinate, and so it regulates the matter to a 
large extent; because when the temperature falls the paper 
merely becomes moist, and when the temperature rises this 
moisture is evaporated, and if there is fair ventilation it will 
be carried off and the fruit never become really wet. If the 
fruit sweats too much, however, owing to poor ventilation or 
rapid lowering of temperature, the paper will not be sufficient 
to prevent the accumulation of the water on the fruit and the 
germination of any spores that may be there. Only within 
certain limits, therefore, is the wrapping of fruit a preventive 
of infection by the fungus. 

It is a common practice to throw decayed fruit in a pile in 
the immediate vicinity of the packing- or curing-house; and 
here it continues to decay and produce countless millions of 



252 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

spores, which are freely carried by the wind, and to this is due 
the thorough infection of the atmosphere referred to above. 
There is no means better calculated to disseminate the disease 
than this practice. Fruit should never be allowed to become 
" blue." By the time it reaches the white-mold stage it should 
either be destroyed by fire, or, what is probably more feasible, 
be buried so that it will not be turned up by plowing, or in any 
other manner. 

In practically all parts of the State, the long, dry summer 
period affords a very available time for the thorough disinfec- 
tion of the packing-house. The mold spores can be killed by 
protracted drying, and it should be the practice to so thor- 
oughly air all packing-houses during the hottest and driest 
part of the summer, that they will be entirely free from the 
fungus for the beginning of the next year's campaign. 

Sulphur should be burned so that the fumes will come in 
contact with every part of the inside of the packing- or curing- 
house. Usually these buildings are not tight enough to permit 
of very thorough work, so that no prescription of the amount 
to use can be safely made. The material is not expensive, so 
that the best policy is to use it very liberally whenever the 
presence of the fungus in quantity is known or suspected to 
exist in the house. 



INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 253 



INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE 
CITRUS. 



The insect pests that affect the citrus are numerous, but are 
now easily kept in subjection by artificial means, aided largely 
by their natural enemies — parasitical and predaceous. 

In combating insect pests California has taken the lead over 
every State and country in the world, and it is to be hoped that 
through the fostering care accorded by the people the State will 
not revert to primitive methods of allowing injurious insect 
pests and tree and plant diseases to be introduced and obtain 
a foothold in our orchards. 

The life of insects is divided into four periods: First, the 
ovum (egg), which is motionless, and apparently lifeless; 
Second, the larva (grub), which is active, voracious, and grows 
rapidly, but without wings; Third, the pupa (chrysalis), which 
is incapable of locomotion, and is in color and outward form 
entirely unlike the larva from which it proceeds; Fourth, the 
imago (perfect insect), which is active, has wings, does not 
increase in size, and which lays eggs for future generations, 
thus perpetuating its kind. The mode in which the life of an 
insect is passed and the different species of trees it infests differ 
very widely in the various stages of its existence. 

The fructification of citrus trees in particular is mostly 
accomplished by different species of insects, which convey the 
pollen from tree to tree, and also from the stamens to the stigma 
of the same tree. Gn the other hand, there are multitudes of 
baneful ones, which injure tree, fruit, etc., and are only checked 
in their progress by other insects that prey upon them, or by 
artificial means. 

SCALE INSECTS. 

Family COCCIDID.E. 

"Male and female larvae similar, apterous, naked or covered, active. 
Females in all stages apterous, metamorphosis semi-complete, naked or 
covered, active or stationary ; rostrum usually present in all stages, some- 
times absent in adult; feet sometimes absent after larval stage; tarsi, where 
present, monomerous; feet, where present, ending in a single claw, ej'es 
somewhat absent. 



254 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

"Male pupse apterous, naked or covered. Adult males with two wings 
and two halteres; metamorphosis complete; rostrum present in larva and 
pupa, always absent in adult ; tarsi monomerous, feet ending in a single claw ; 
abdomen terminating in a spike, which forms the sheath of the penis; eyes 
])resent in adult; ocelli often large, sometimes exceeding three in number." — 
W. M. Maskell, F.R.M.S., "The Scale Insects," New Zealand, p. 37. 

This group of insects is of the utmost importance to horticul- 
turists, as but few trees are exempt from its attacks. While 
the study of economic entomology is comparatively new in Cali- 
fornia, its incipiency dating back but a few years, these insects 
have attracted wide attention, as nearly every branch of the fruit 
industry has felt their effects more or less. In this State there 
is a great diversity of industries in the fruit line, and trees and 
plants have been imported from almost every country. Upon 
them many injurious species of insects have been brought in. 

The pernicious scale, or "San Jose" so called, which does 
not affect the citrus, but deciduous trees principally, was the 
first species of this group which gave this important study its 
incentive. It made its presence felt in Santa Clara County as 
early as 1878. Whence it came is not definitely known, but 
was no doubt brought here on cuttings or trees. As very little 
was then known of this species, effective measures were not 
adopted for its suppression, and it spread to adjoining orchards 
and was afterward taken to other counties on nursery trees. 
For a time it threatened to be a menace to the deciduous fruit 
industry, and it appeared as if its progress could not be checked; 
but effective measures were discovered for its suppression in 
the way of insecticides, and lately, beneficial insects have 
accomplished great good in practically exterminating it 
throughout .the State. 

In 1868 another species, the cottony cushion scale, was 
brought into our State on plants from Australia, its natural 
home. This species played great havoc in many sections, 
especially to orange and lemon orchards. Every means pos- 
sible were applied, and for a time it baffled the combined wisdom 
of scientists and fruit-growers. It was not that the insecticides 
applied did not kill the pest, but because all insects could not 
be reached, enough escaping to reinfest the tree. Here again 
nature came to our relief. The Vedalia cardinalis, Mulsant, 
in one season reduced it to such an extent that it can no longer 
do injury. Where this scale appears in isolated localities 



INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 255 

and where the Vedalia do not appear, colonies of the Vedalia 
should be procured. 

In 1872, the Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell, was introduced, also 
on trees from Australia. These were planted at Los Angeles, 
and subsequently some were taken to Orange, from which 
localities the pest spread. This species was, described by Prof. 
Maskell, and was imported into New Zealand from Sydney, 
thus settling the question as to its source. Prior to 1880, little 
or no damage was done by this pest. The greatest injury and 
spread occurred between 1880 and 1890. AVhile no effectiA'e 
parasite that preys on this species has been found, the discovery 
of the hydrocyanic acid gas treatment has proved a great boon 
to the citrus industry, through which means the pest is kept 
under control. 

In 1872 the Aspidiotus citrinus, Coquillett, was also intro- 
duced, from Japan, into the San Gabriel Valley, on orange 
trees. At first the insect made slow progress, and was not con- 
sidered a very serious pest. Between the years 1883 and 1889 
it spread very rapidly, in fact alarmingly, throughout the val- 
ley. In 1889 a parasite of the genus Coccophagus Avas discov- 
ered preying upon the scale, and it is now kept in subjection. 

Other species, the Mytilaspis citricola, Packard, and Mytilas- 
pis Gloverii, Packard, have been introduced on nursery trees, 
principally from Florida, but as yet they have been confined 
to those trees in certain localities and have not spread. 
Numerous other species are continually being discovered on 
plants and trees imported from many parts of the world, and 
promptly destroyed by Quarantine Officer Craw at San Fran- 
cisco 

SPECIES IN CALIFORNIA. 

Genus ASPIDIOTUS, Bouche. 

This genus includes species of Diaspina', in which the scale 
of the female is circular or nearly so, with the exuviae at or 
near the center, and the scale of the male somewhat elongated, 
with the larval skin at one side of the center or near one 
extremity. The last segment of the female usually presents 
four groups of spinnerets; in a few species there are five 
groups, and in some they are wanting. 



256 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

The following species of this genus infest citrus trees in 
California: 

(1) Red scale — Aspidiotus aurantii, Maskell. 

(2) Yellow scale — Aspidiotus citrinus, Coquillett. 

(3) Oleander scale — Aspidiotus nerii, Comstock. 

(1) Red Scale. 

A circular, flat scale, known by the popular name of " red 
scale," from the color of its shell. 

Scale of female is light gray, quite translucent. Female 
light yellow in adolescent stages; as it reaches maturity 
becomes brownish. Viviparous. 




Veatral view of iusect. Red scale on leaf. 

Scale of male resembles female, except that it is only one 
fourth as large. Male light yellow, thoracic band brown; 
eyes purplish black. 

This insect is the worst enemy to citrus culture in California. 
It attacks the trunk, branches, leaves, and fruit. So far no 
effective parasites are known to attack it, excepting predaceous 
insects, which do not increase rapidly enough to check its 
progress. 

Treatment. — Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat- 
ment (formula No. 4). 

(2) Yellow Scale. 

A small yellow scale, infesting citrus trees in the San Gabriel 
Valley, Los Angeles, Sacramento, Oroville, and Marysville. 



INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 



257 



This species differs but slightly from A. aiLrantii, excepting in 
habits and color. 

Scale of female circular, body pale yellow. Male smaller 
than female, nearly circular, white, marked with irregular 
yellow spots. Viviparous. 

This species only attacks the leaves and fruit, seldom the 
wood. Supposed to have been introduced from Japan in 1872. 

Treatment. — Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat- 
ment (formula No. 4). 




Yellow Scale on leaf. 



Ventral view of insect. 



(3) Oleander Scale. 

A small whitish scale infesting the oleander. It attacks 
oranges and lemons; does not infest the trees to their material 
injury, although harmful to the fruit. 

Scale of female flat, whitish or light gray, and with exuviae 
central or nearly so. Female nearly circular in outline. Scale 
of male slightly elongated, with larval skin nearly central, 
snowy white; diameter, .04 inch. Oviparous. 

This species has often been mistaken for the true "red" scale 
when on lemons, as it assumes a pinkish tint. 

Treatment. — Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and gas treat- 
ment (formula No. 4); kerosene emulsion has also given 
satisfactory results. 
17c 



258 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

Genus LECANIUM, Illiger. 

Females naked, flat or convex, viviparous or oviparous, 
propagating without ovisac, arboreal. 
The following species have been discovered in this State: 

(1) Black scale — Lecanium olese, Bernard. 

(2) Soft scale — Lecanium hesperidum, Linnaeus. 

(3) Hemispherical scale — Lecaniumhemisphsericum,Ta,vgiom. 

(1) Black Scale. 
(Fig. 6, Plate XXVI.) 

A blackish-brown scale, very common throughout the State. 
Infests nearly every kind of tree and plant. It is more 
troublesome on the olive, next to which citrus trees suffer the 
most from its attacks. 

Adult female dark brown, nearly black, nearly hemispherical 
in form, often quite as long as broad; average length, 4 mm. 
to 5 mm.; average height, 3 mm. Eggs long, oval, 0.4 mm. in 
length, color yellowish. Larva flat and six-jointed. 

Undoubtedly European, and infests a greater variety of 
plants than any other insect of this group. There are several 
parasites that attack it, and with the aid of predaceous ones, 
especially the Rhizobius ventralis, recently introduced, it is 
kept in check in some localities to a considerable ektent. It is 
most troublesome in the coast and bay regions. As this scale 
has but one brood a year, which is hatched during the summer, 
it is greatly reduced in number by the heat in the interior 
regions. 

Treatment. — Rosin solution (formula No. 2), kerosene emul- 
sion (formula No. 3), and gas treatment (formula No. 4). On 
all trees which do not shed their leaves the gas treatment is 
the only remedy found to efficiently destroy this scale. When 
properly applied it should destroy over 99 per cent. The 
washes and sprays are with difficulty made to reach over 80 
or 90 per cent of the tree area. The remaining live scale soon 
reestablish themselves. 

(2) Soft Scale. 

A dark brown, oval scale, infesting citrus trees and orna- 
mental plants. 

Adult female, 3 mm. to 4 mm. long; yellow, inclined to brown 



260 STATE BOAED OF HORTICULTURE. 

upon disk, shape elongate-oval, nearly fiat, smooth and shin- 
ing. Antennae seven-jointed, legs slender and long. Young 
larva oval, long. Viviparous. 

This species is not a serious pest and is easily subdued. 
There are several parasites that keep it in check, so much so 
as to prevent its doing material injury. 

Treatment. — Rosin solution (formula No. 1), and kerosene 
emulsion (formula No. 3). 

(3) Hemispherical Scale. 

A dark brown, hemispherical scale; infests citrus trees prin- 
cipally — the lime the most. The scale settles on the limb and 
on the Jeafj mostly on the latter along the midrib, but along 
the margin the most. The average length of the adult female 
is 3.5 mm., width 3 mm., height 2 mm. The shape and pro- 
portions vary greatly, according as the scale is formed upon 
leaf or twig. 

Treatment. — Kerosene emulsion (formula No. 3). 

Genus MYTILASPIS, Targioni-Tozzetti. 

Female and male puparia similar, or nearly similar, in 
shape, but the male puparium is smaller. Puparia elongated, 
generally more or less mussel-shaped or pyriform, usually 
convex, more or less curved, pellicles at one end. Male pupa- 
ria not carinated. Five groups of spinnerets in the female, 
but the groups are sometimes continuous. 

The following species are found in this State: 

(1) Purple scale — Mytilaspis citricola, Packard. 

(2) Long scale — Mytilaspis Gloverii, Packard. 

(1) Purple Scale. 

(Fig. 2, Plate XXV.) 

A long purple scale; infests citrus trees principally. In 
Florida it is a very troublesome pest, and was introduced into 
California about fifteen years ago on trees imported from that 
State. 

Scale of female long, more or less curved and widened pos- 
teriorly, brown, with exuviae of same color; length, .12 inch. 
Female yellowish white. Scale of male usually straight, or 
nearly so, of same color as scale of female. Egg white, 
arranged irregularly under the scale. 



INSECT PESTS AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 261 

Treatment. — This scale is somewhat difficult to destroy, and 
will only yield effectually to the gas treatment (formula 
No. 4). 

(2) Long Scale. 

This species, like the preceding one, is very common through- 
out Florida, and is usually associated with M. citricola. It 
infests citrus trees principally. 

Scale of female differs from M. citricola in being much nar- 
rower, color light yellow, varying to light brown. Female, 
body light purple. Eggs white when first laid, become tinged 
with purple before hatching, and they are arranged in two 
rows, in a regular manner. Scale of male similar in form 
to that of the female. 

Treatment. — Like the preceding one, this scale is difficult to 
destroy. Use the gas treatment (formula No. 4). 

Genus ICERYA, Signoret. 

Antennffi eleven- jointed, body covered with a cottony matter 
of several shades of color, and with a secretion of still longer 
filaments. Skin with rounded spinnerets and with long, scat- 
tered hairs. Antenna? of nearly the same size throughout 
their whole length, and with a long pubescence. The digitules 
of the claw elongated and buttoned; of the tarsi as simple 
hairs. Genital apparatus terminating in a tube internally, 
with a reticulated ring, and without hairs at its extremity. An- 
tennae of the larva six-jointed, with a very long pubescence and 
with four hairs upon the last joint much longer than the others. 
Lateral lobes of the extremity of the abdomen with a series of 
three very long, frequently interlaced bristles. 

Cottony Cushion Scale ( Jcerya pwrc/iasi, Maskell). 

A cottony-like insect, infesting citrus trees and ornamental 
plants. 

Adult female dark orange red, legs and antenna? black, 
covered with yellowish powder. Egg-sac white, tinged with 
yellow, and is ribbed longitudinally, and longer than the body 
of the insect, filled with loose cottony mass containing the eggs. 
Egg oval in shape, red, 0.7 mm. long. Newly hatched larva 
reddish brown; antennae six- jointed; begins in a short time to 
excrete tufts of yellow waxy matter along the dorsal surface 



262 



STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 



of the body and lateral margins. The young creep along at 
first, then settle along the underside of the leaves and on the 
branches, which they seem to prefer, but after passing through 
the second or third molt migrate to other parts of the tree. 

Since the introduction of the Australian ladybirds, Vedalia 
cardinalis and Novius Koehelei, which devour it, this scale is no 
longer considered a pest. 

Treatment. — When spraying is desired, formula No. 1 or 
No. 3 will be found effective. 





Two distinct forms of Cottony Cushion Scale. (After Craw.) 



Genus DACTYLOPIUS. 

To this genus belong the insects commonly known as mealy 
bugs. The antenna of the female are six-jointed in the larva, 
and eight-jointed in the adult. The male larva has seven- 
jointed antennse. The tarsi are furnished with four digitules 
and the anal ring with six hairs. 

Mealy Bug {Dactylopius adonidum, Signoret). 
(Fig. 1, Plate XXV; Fig. 2, Plate XXVII.) 

This mealy bug has made its presence felt in some portions 
of the State. It congregates in large numbers in portions of 
the tree, especially among the clusters of fruit. 

Treatment. — This insect is effectually destroyed by the ordi- 
nary washes used for scale, and by the ladybird Cryptolxmus 
montrouzieri, lately introduced. This ladybird is as effectual 
in destroying the mealy bug as the Vedalia and Novius are in 
devouring the cottony cushion scale. 



INSECT PESTS — FORMULAS FOR THEIR DESTRUCTION. 



263 



SIX-SPOTTED MITE. 
Tetranychus G-maculatus, Riley. 

This mite was introduced into 
the lower portion of the State 
on citrus trees from Florida. In 
that State it has done consider- 
able damage to citrus fruits. 
Infested trees may be recognized 
by a mottled appearance. The 
mites congregate on the under- 
side of the leaves, usually pro- 
ducing a concavity. The upper 
surface of the leaves is marked 
with yellow blotches. 

Treatment. — Formula No. 5. 




Six-Spotted Mite. 
a, insect enlarged; h, tarsus; c, ros- 
trum and palpus, still more enlarged: 
d, tip of palpus, still more enlarged. 



FORMULAS FOR DESTROYING INSECT PESTS 
AFFECTING THE CITRUS. 

The following formulas of insecticides for the destruction of 
the various pests that affect citrus trees have proved the most 
effectual in this State: 



(1) Rosin Solution. 

(For the Red and the Yellow Scale on citrus trees.) 

Rosin 20 pounds. 

Caustic soda (70 per cent) 7 pounds. 

Fish oil - 3 pints. 

Water, to make 100 gallons. 

Place the rosin, caustic soda, and fish oil in a boiler, pour 
over them about 20 gallons of water, and cook thoroughly over 
a brisk fire for three hours; then add hot water, a little occa- 
sionally, and stir well, until diluted to 50 gallons of hot solu- 
tion. Place this in the spray tank and add cold water to make 
the necessary amount. Never add cold water when cooking. 



264 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

I (2) Rosin Solution. 

For newly hatched Black Scale and Soft Brown Scale.) 

Rosin 18 pounds. 

Caustic soda (70 per cent) 5 pounds. 

Fish oil 2}4 pints. 

Water, to make _ 100 gallons. 

Prepare as directed in formula No. 1. The black scale 
generally completes hatching in most sections by September 
1st, therefore this formula should be used during that month. 

(3) Kerosene Emulsion. 

(For Black Scale and Soft Brown Scale on citrus trees.) 

Kerosene oil (Pearl, 150° test) 5 gallons. 

Common laundry soap li^ pounds. 

Water -... 2}/^ gallons. 

Dissolve the soap by boiling in 2^ gallons of water, and 
while boiling remove to another vessel; add the kerosene, and 
churn for fifteen minutes, or until a perfect emulsion is formed. 
Afterward dilute with 6^ gallons of hot water for each gallon 
of oil, and to the mixture add 2^ pounds of home-made soap 
dissolved in hot water. Apply at a temperature of 140° F. 

(4) The Hydrocyanic Acid Gas Treatment. 

(For destroying scale insects on citrus trees.) 

This treatment should be used in the night to avoid light, 
heat, and sea breeze, which neutralize the effects of the gas. 
The chemicals used for producing the gas are: Sulphuric acid 
(commercial), cyanide of potassium (98 to 99 per cent), and 
water. 

The following instructions must be carefully observed: First, 
the tent, which must be air-tight, is placed over the tree; 
second, the tent is made air-tight around the bottom, by throw- 
ing some loose soil over the bottom of the canvas; third, the 
necessary amount of sulphuric acid, together with the required 
amount of water, is put in a glazed eartheuAvare vessel, and 
placed under the canvas, and the cyanide of potassium is 
added. A piece of sacking or burlap is thrown over the top of 
the vessel, to spread the gas and prevent it from burning the 
leaves immediately above the generator. The tree is left 
covered forty minutes. 



INSECT PESTS — FORMULAS FOR THEIR DESTRUCTION. 



265 



The chemicals are to be used in the following proportions, as 
recommended by the Riverside County Board of Horticultural 
Commissioners: 



Height of Tree. 


Diameter of Tree. 


Water. 


Cyanide C. P., 98 
per cent. 


Sulphuric Acid, 
66 per cent. 


Feet. 
6 


Feet. 
4 


Ounces. 
2 


Ounces. 

1 


Ounces. 
1 


8 


6 


3 


IK 


IK 


10 


8 


5 


2>^ 


2K 


12 


14 


11 


5 


5K 


16 


16 


17 


8 


9 


20 


16—20 


22 


10 


12 


20—24 


18—22 


30 


14 


16 


24—30 


20—28 


34 


16 


18 


30—36 


25—30 


52 


24 


28 



The cyanide should be used as coarse as possible, so that the 
chemical action will be less violent. The gas is also generated 
more evenly, and there is not so much danger of the chemicals 
boiling over or spattering the tent. As soon as the tent is 
removed the vessel is rinsed with clean water and prepared for 
another charge. 



(5) For Mites (Tetranychus) on Citrus Trees. 

(To be applied in summer.) 

Caustic soda (70 per cent) 10 pounds. 

Sulphur 20 pounds. 

Dissolve in water _ 20 gallons. 

Take the sulphur, mix to a paste — not sloppy — with cold 
water in a barrel; then add to this wet sulphur 10 pounds of 
caustic soda (98 per cent), and it will boil the sulphur just like 
lime slacking; have 20 gallons of water to add to it as it boils, 
to prevent burning. This is the stock solution. When ready 
to spray the mites or spiders, put 40 gallons of water in another 
barrel, and take half a gallon of the stock solution and add to 
the forty gallons of water, straining it to take out any sediment 
there may have been in the sulphur. Apply with a spray 
pump under one hundred pounds pressure. 



266 STATE BOARD OF HORTICULTURE. 

Kahles'^ Distillate Solution. 

(For Black Scale on citrus trees; apply in the fall.) 

Distillate, 28" (untreated) 5 gallons. 

Hot water 5 gallons. 

Whale-oil soap.. 13^ pounds. 

The whale-oil soap must first be dissolved in the water. 
Then add the dissolved soap to the distillate. It is important 
that the distillate be placed in the mixing vessel first; then 
place the dissolved soap on top. Attach your spraying pump 
to the bottom of the vessel in which you are mixing the com- 
pound, and keep pumping it out of the vessel through the 
spraying pump back into the vessel, until the whole becomes 
of a rich creamy substance. Keep pumping or churning it 
through the pump until it becomes a complete emulsion, with- 
out a speck of free oil in sight, which will take from ten to 
fifteen minutes. When properly emulsified, it should increase 
in volume about one third, because it becomes aerified. 

If the ground is in good condition, containing proper moisture, 
and the trees are healthy and growing, you can apply the spray 
in the proportion of eleven parts of water to one of the emulsion. 
If the trees are dormant do not use it so strong; say about 
twelve or fourteen gallons of water to one gallon of the stock 
compound. Always put your emulsion in the apparatus first, 
then add the water. The stock compound and the cold water 
will mix as readily as milk and water, and when finished 
should resemble milk in all appearances. 

When spraying be careful to observe any particles of oil 
which may not have been thoroughly emulsified, and which 
rise to the surface. In this event, only use the correct emulsion, 
and when near the bottom empty the oil off. 

About 200 gallons of the stock mixture can be made for 16.25. 
The distillate costs 5 cents a gallon, and the soap about 5 cents 
per pound. Two hundred gallons of stock mixture at eleven 
to one give 2,200 gallons of spraying mixture. 

This solution is made the same as the kerosene emulsion, 
only this distillate contains all the natural oils and strength 
of the crude oil, nothing being taken therefrom except the 
asphaltum. Therefore, it is a great deal stronger and stays 
longer on the trees without evaporating. Eleven to one is the 
strongest it can be used with safety on citrus trees. 

*F. Kahles, Superintendent of Crocker-Sperry Lemon Grove, Montecito. 



BENEFICIAL INSECTS — PREDACEOUS. 267 

This remedy is used by Mr. Neff, Superintendent of the Win- 
dermere Orchards at La Mirada, but he uses twenty pounds 
more whale-oil soap, on account of lime in the water at that 
place. On this account it requires nearly an hour to prepare a 
perfect emulsion. He also uses warm water to add to the stock 
solution, as it works better than cold water. Mr. Neflf says: 
" Some distillates will kill very large ' black scale,' while another 
lot of distillates, apparently the same, will not kill any scales 
larger than a pinhead." 

BENEFICIAL INSECTS— PREDACEOUS. 

In no part of the world has the value of predaceous and 
parasitical insects been more fully demonstrated than in this 
State. The cottony cushion scale {leery a purchasi, Maskell) 
had gained a very strong foothold here, especially on citrus 
trees, and the damage done by its ravages can hardly be esti- 
mated. Everywhere was noted its resistless and ruthless 
march. Watchfulness did not guard against its spread. The 
most heroic treatments proved of no avail. But in the deep 
night of our despair there came to our relief a minute ladybird, 
the Vedalia cardinalis, which in less than a year entirely freed 
the orchards of California of that pest, thereby accomplishing 
a work entirely unprecedented in the annals of economic 
entomology. In 1892 another ladybird, Novius Koehelei (see 
Plate XXVI), also a foe to this scale, was introduced, although 
a repetition of the work achieved by the Vedalia was gravely 
doubted. What energy, science, and money could not perform 
in years, these minute creatures accomplished in a short period 
of time, and to those who closely watched their work it seems 
almost incomprehensible. 

These friendly insects are assisted materially by other species, 
and especially by internal parasites-. That other insects with 
similar instincts could ever be discovered was doubted, but 
through persistence and faith on the part of the State Board 
of Horticulture, a further search was instituted, which was 
rewarded by the discovery of two other species. One, the 
Rhizobius ventralis (see Plate XXVI), is an effective foe of the 
black scale {Lecanium olese), which it is diminishing very 
rapidly in many sections of the State. This ladybird has 
proved most effective in the coast and bay counties, where it 
finds a congenial home. The other species, the CryptoUemus 
montrouzieri (see Plate XXVII),. has proved an effective enemy 
of the mealy bug. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE. 



PLATE XXVI. 




LADYBIRDS— Newly Introduced Species Impokted by State Board of 

HOKTICULTURE THAT HaVE PrOVED EMINENTLY SUCCESSFUL. 



CALIFORNIA CITRUS CULTURE, 



PLATE XXVII. 



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Fig. 1 — Cryptobrmus montrouzieri~\a,rv&, enlarged. 




Fig. 3 — Cryptoluemus montrouzieri— Fig. ■l—Cri/ptolunnis moiitioazicn—pn'p&, 

perfect insect, enlarged. enlarged. 



LADYBIRDS— Newly Introduced Species Imported by State Board of 
Horticulture that Have Proved Eminently Successful. 



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